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For the last four centuries, under the policy of the Portuguese Padroado1454, the Macau Catholic Church has been closely associated with the Portuguese rulers of Macau in governing this 'Chinese territory under the Portuguese rule'. This church-state relationship in Macau before the Chinese takeover (1999) and after has become a client-patron relationship under the shadow of the Portuguese appeasement policy. In the context of the appeasement policy, this paper aims at discussing: (1) the close alliance between the Portuguese government and the Catholic Church in Macau, offering special privileges and convenience to the Church but weakening church capacity in evangelization and spiritual leadership; and (2) the interactions of the three actors in the triangular relationship among the Vatican, China and Macau.

Qual o processo de definição urbanística das cidades construídas pela presença portuguesa no Oriente, entre 1503 e 1663? é a questão fundamental a que esta tese se propõe dar uma resposta, com o objetivo de preencher uma das lacunas que persiste no tema do universo urbanístico português: o conhecimento cabal do elo asiático dentro da problemática da urbanística portuguesa. Entre o estabelecimento do primeiro núcleo urbano, Cochim, em 1503, e a sua capitulação para a Companhia das Índias Orientais holandesa, em 1663, enquadra-se o tempo forte da instalação dos portugueses na Ásia, decorrente da Expansão marítima. O objetivo é analisar, dentro da problemática disciplinar do urbanismo, esta fase de instalação, coincidente com a urbanização dos núcleos onde se instalou a presença portuguesa e se deu o seu alargamento para os territórios envolventes. Cidades cabeças de territórios, ancoraram em terra a rede marítima que serviu a empresa da Expansão e, em grande parte sem uma solução de continuidade, vincularam materialidades e comunidades num tempo longo, extensível ao dia de hoje. A dimensão que a Ásia urbanizada acarreta no estudo da urbanística, em particular, pelo confronto e convívio que ocorreu para ser possível a instalação e permanência portuguesa, amplifica a reflexão e o discurso das relações ou disparidades entre culturas urbanísticas e, assim, o âmbito da própria cultura urbanística portuguesa. As afinidades que as comunidades contemporâneas têm com o espaço que habitam, veem e sentem, passam, de igual modo, pelo entendimento e avaliação não só do resultado no presente, mas dos processos que lhe deu origem e transformou. Porque a urbanística é tão só uma pequena parte da cultura, que informa e forma a identidade de uma comunidade. O registo urbanístico que ficou, e aquele que foi rasurado, no fundo, o património urbanístico, tal como o património material, a língua, a gastronomia, a religião, entre outros, tem assim uma aplicação direta em disciplinas cujos conteúdos culturais e sociais são o mote e nas decisões políticas que gerem os espaços e comunidades urbanos. O esclarecimento destas questões e a variedade dos objetos impôs trilhar a análise num horizonte geográfico alargado, determinando, quase de seguida, quais os núcleos urbanos que valeriam um olhar mais profundo. Cochim, Colombo, Malaca, São Tomé de Meliapor e Macau são os objetos que, constituindo-se como uma rede urbana com variantes, melhor articulam os diversos enquadramentos regionais nos quais existe(m) a(s) rede(s) urbana(s) asiática(s) onde foi exercida influência portuguesa. A variedade definiu, de igual modo, a estratégia da análise. A cada caso corresponde um estudo morfológico dos programas e malhas urbanos, focando-se o como, em que condições, quem e quando se pensou e fez a cidade, e como a partir dessas matrizes ela evoluiu. Extrapola-se depois, nos casos que assim o exigem, numa análise da interferência portuguesa no território envolvente, os arrabaldes e o termo. A par e passo a todo este processo é desenhada a história numa base operativa que, tal como o texto, é uma ferramenta de interpretação e de consolidação do conhecimento. Por fim, uma leitura de confronto entre os objetos visa expor os tipos, os mecanismos de atuação, as particularidades que conduziram o desenho urbano, e o nível de intromissão nos territórios. Em resumo, informa o processo de definição urbanística, o qual abre a discussão para dois âmbitos que lhe estão intimamente relacionados: a cultura e o património urbanísticos, que são simultaneamente produtores e produtos dos processos.

Na história colonial do Extremo Oriente, durante os séculos XVI e XVII e na história dos missionários católicos, o Padroado ocupa uma posição muito importante. Portugal, Espanha, França e a Santa Sé realizaram uma intensa competição pelo Padroado, o que teve uma profunda influência na história. Espero, através desta dissertação, conhecer melhor a história do Padroado Português no Extremo Oriente, bem como através da investigação dos documentos e outros materiais encontrados resumir os impactos do Padroado Português e os seus papéis nas ex-colónias ultramarinas, particularmente dando atenção à forma como Portugal completou o domínio colonial de Macau no período das dinastias Ming e Qing. O primeiro capítulo introduz algumas possibilidades sobre o ensino das relações históricas sino-portuguesas na aprendizagem do português. O segundo capítulo refere a influência e o papel de Portugal no processo de desenvolvimento do Padroado português, a intenção do Papa na concessão do Padroado do Extremo Oriente a Portugal, os impactos do acesso ao Padroado do Extremo Oriente a Portugal. Foi feita também uma análise de várias atividades seculares do Padroado do Extremo Oriente em que os missionários portugueses participaram. No terceiro capítulo é abordada principalmente a relação entre Portugal e a China durante as dinastias Ming e Qing, e como Portugal entrou em Macau com sucesso e esta se tornou numa das suas colónias ultramarinas. O último capítulo resume o importante papel desempenhado pelo Padroado do Extremo Oriente no processo colonial no exterior e apresenta a análise feita, com base nos dois capítulos anteriores, do estabelecimento e manutenção de relações de negócios, fornecendo informações de negócios e participação na administração colonial, assim como o envolvimento em atividades de negócios e outras atividades seculares. É referida a eficácia secular do Padroado do Extremo Oriente e a sua ajuda na consolidação e desenvolvimento dos interesses coloniais portugueses no Extremo Oriente.

The circulation of Western knowledge (in its broadest sense) can be described from various angles. Relying on an overall evidence collected in the last 20 years, I focus on the various routes (especially less well-known “viae”), the media used as carriers (printed books; periodicals; correspondence; illustrations; objects and instruments; oral contacts), and the places where these exchanges happened. Particular attention I pay to the two-sided character of this exchange and the ‘intercultural’ crossing and interaction between Western / Chinese books, illustrations, and forms / techniques of knowledge. All in all, this evidence undeniably shows the primary role of the Jesuit mission as communication route between cultures, the enormous volume of exchanged knowledge and the gigantic personal and collective involvement in this process.

This book is the first scholarly study of the famous Jesuit Chinese children’s primer, the Four Character Classic, written by Giulio Aleni (1582–1649) while living in Fujian, China. This book also includes masterful translations of both Wang Yinglin’s (1551–1602) hallowed Confucian Three Character Classic and Aleni’s Chinese catechism that was published during the Qing (1644–1911). Clark’s careful reading of the Four Character Classic provides new insights into an area of the Jesuit mission in early modern China that has so far been given little attention, the education of children. This book underscores how Aleni’s published work functions as a good example of the Jesuit use of normative Chinese print culture to serve the catechetical exigencies of the Catholic mission in East Asia, particularly his meticulous imitation of Confucian children’s primers to promote decidedly Christian content.

The experience of Prospero Intorcetta, SJ (1625-96), in the biennium 1671-72, after having been appointed in Canton as Sinicae missionis procurator in 1666, then sent for a crucial mission to Rome, stands in the middle of his biography, just divided into a first decade in Asia, from 1659 to 1669, and the second part of his apostolate in China covering over twenty years, from his return in 1674 until his death in Hangzhou. 1 The specific case I am focusing on here can be of interest with regard to sources of the Jesuit correspondence from China, involving both the Jesuits engaged in Peking or Canton and the European readers variously interested in learning about the Chinese world and grasping at recent news on the progress of evangelization in China

Tomas Pereira, the Jesuit missionary of Portugal, entered the Chinese mainland during the reign of Emperor Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty. He lived in Beijing for 37 years and like his predecessors, Matteo Ricci, Alvaro Semedo and other Jesuits, he was not only a missionary, but also an observer, a researcher and a builder of Chinese Culture. Buddhism, introduced into China in the Han dynasties, had become one of the major sects in China, aroused his great attention. Pereira studied and observed the Chinese culture so heterogeneous as Christianity with vision of a Western missionary. This article intends to examine and discuss his understanding of Chinese Buddhism, based on the “Treatise of Chinese Buddhism” authored by Tomás Pereira.

This dissertation examines the role of urban real estate in the finances and networks of the Jesuit missions in China. Starting in 1612, when Jesuit missionaries working in China envisioned for the first time a strategy for making the missions financially independent from Europe, I will investigate how and why it took until the second half of the eighteenth century for the Christian communities in China to become financially self-sustaining. The procurators and their subordinate treasurers, the Jesuits primarily in charge of the financial management of the missions, are the subject of this dissertation. How did they combine the resources and personnel extracted from Europe, India, and China to establish an autonomous financial foundation for the missions in China? This dissertation argues that their most reliable source of income was revenue from investments in urban real estate. The arc of this dissertation spans both the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries examining the Portuguese and the French Jesuit missions in China. Through a close analysis of Jesuit procurators’ activities and personal networks this dissertation will assert that while they realized the necessity of economic integration in the global missions early on, procurators encountered great problems in realizing this goal. As such, this dissertation recognizes the limitations of global networks by exploring the role of global contact and the circulation of missionaries, money, and mail and by looking at the Jesuit search for financial opportunities in the local and regional economy to become self-sustaining communities. Only by studying the Jesuit finances in China over a time-span of 166 years does the relationship between Longobardo’s strategic planning for financial independence in 1612 and the French Jesuits’ budget for their missions in Beijing in 1778 become fully clear. This dissertation’s most important contribution is in charting the growing importance of revenue from investments in urban real estate. Ironically, just as the missions in China had begun to galvanize local resource networks largely independent of the central organization of the Society, European monarchs expelled the Jesuits from their realms and Rome finally dissolved the Jesuits as a Society.

Macau’s status has never been a pacific topic even inside Portuguese historiography. Departing from Montalto de Jesus (1863-1932)’ controversial proposal to summit Macau’s administration to the League of Nations in the revised edition of his Historic Macao, 1926, the author aims to discuss the construction of the discourse on the autonomy of Macau, identify the roots of this concept, and explore its different meanings in works of some of the most relevant Portuguese and Macanese historians and authors on the topic during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Jesuit Historiography Online (JHO) is an Open Access resource offering over seventy historiographical essays written by experts in their field. Aimed at scholars of Jesuit history and at those in all overlapping areas, the essays in JHO provide summaries of key texts from the earlier literature, painstaking surveys of more recent work, and digests of archival and online resources. Crucially, the scope of the essays is global: they cover both Anglophone and non-Anglophone sources and scholarship from Europe, Asia, Africa, and the Americas. The result is much more than a bibliographical check-list: authors explore trends in Jesuit historiography and provide a nuanced, systematic, and in-depth analysis of what has been written—when, why, and by whom—about arguably the most prolific, diverse, and wide-ranging religious order within the Roman Catholic tradition. JHO is available in Open Access thanks to generous support from the Institute for Advanced Jesuit Studies at Boston College.

Abstract New encounters in America, Africa, and Asia facilitated the "discovery" of non-Biblical religious traditions that were distinct from the ancient paganism known to Christian humanists and antiquarians from classical sources and patristic literature. Although Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism did not exist as concepts in the early modern period, the three articles in this special issue illustrate the learning process by which a number of influential and pioneering Catholic missionaries came to distinguish these various traditions from each other. We argue that they did not simply "invent" new religions arbitrarily: instead, on the basis of the very broad categories of true religion and idolatry, they engaged in some close interaction and "dialogue"-albeit usually polemical-with local religious elites and their writings, including Eastern Christians. In addition, in the case of the Jesuits in particular, we note that these various engagements were often connected events...

Abstract In modern scholarship, much ink has been spilled over the significance of St. Augustine in the history of Western philosophy and theology. However, little effort has been made to clarify the legacy of Augustine in East Asia, especially his contribution to China during the early Jesuit missionary work through the Maritime Silk Road. The present article attempts to fill this lacuna and provide a philosophical analysis of the encounter of Chinese indigenous religions with St Augustine, by inquiring into why and how Augustine was taken as a model for the Chinese in their acceptance of the Christian faith. The analysis is split into three parts. The first part reflects on the contemporary disputations over the quality of the paraphrasing work of the early Jesuits, analyzing the validity of the allegedly careless inaccuracies in their introduction of Augustine's biography. The second part analyses some rarely discussed Chinese translations of Augustine, which I recently found in the Nanjing Union Theological Seminary, with particular focus on their ideological context. In particular, the paraphrased text concerning Augustine's theory of sin and the two cities will be highlighted. The third part goes a step further in exploring the reason why Augustine was considered an additional advantage in dealing with the conflicts between Christian and Confucian values. The primary contribution this essay makes is to present a philosophical inquiry into the role of Augustine in the early acceptance of Christianity in China by suggesting that a strategy of “Confucian-Christian synthesis” had been adopted by the Jesuit missionaries. Thereby, they accommodated Confucian terms without dropping the core values of the orthodox Catholic faith. The conclusion revisits the critics’ arguments and sums up with an evaluation of the impact of Augustine's religious values in the indigenization of Christianity in China.