Your search

This article examines the historical development of Catholic missionary expansion from the Spanish Philippines toward territories under the jurisdiction of the Portuguese Patronage (*Padroado*) during the 16th and 17th centuries. Beginning with the arrival of Miguel López de Legazpi in 1565 and the formal establishment of Manila in 1571, the author analyzes Spain’s strategic ambition to utilize the archipelago as a springboard for religious and commercial penetration into China, Japan, and wider Southeast Asia. Central to this study is the institutional rivalry between the burgeoning Spanish ecclesiastical structure—culminating in the creation of the Archdiocese of Manila and the seminal 1st Synod of Manila—and the established Portuguese centers of Malacca and Macao. The research explores how the Spanish sought to legitimize their colonial dominion through evangelical missions, highlighting the roles of various religious orders and the transition from traditional cults to universalist religions like Christianity and Islam amidst regional socioeconomic shifts. By contextualizing the administrative and pastoral strategies employed by Spanish authorities, such as the adoption of native languages for proselytization, the article elucidates the complex intersection of Iberian geopolitical interests, religious competition, and the evolving cultural landscape of early modern East Asia.

This article explores the role of the Supernatural in the popular medicine of Macao, articulating how Chinese therapeutic practices in southern China intertwine with magical and religious components. The central hypothesis holds that popular medicine is not reduced to empirical instruments, but is inserted into a constellation of magical-religious meanings that guide both individual care and social organization. The argument is based on the notion of the magical-religious ethneme (Bernardi) and on the three components of medicine according to Sigerist (empirical, magical, and religious), to demonstrate that, even in contexts with writing, medical knowledge retains traces of Theurgy, Magic, and Priesthood. The methodology, essentially ethnographic and comparative, combines a bibliographic review of studies in the History of Medicine with observations of Macanese medicine, including non-therapeutic samples present in clinical practice, such as amulets, bones, stones, as well as rituals and symbols that function as means of communication with the Supernatural (examples of sam kók fu). The results show that the magical-religious domain is not the exclusive preserve of non-literate peoples: throughout history and in Macao, it remains a constitutive element of traditional medicine, influencing values, norms of conduct, and strategies of cultural adaptation—including the integration of Portuguese traits into Macanese practice. It concludes that the cosmos represents the totality of relationships between beings and things, making it difficult to separate the sacred from the profane in Macanese health care.

This article examines the life and economic impact of Matheus Joannes, a prominent Armenian merchant who resided in Macao from 1761 until his death in 1794. Characterized as a "merchant prince," Joannes played a pivotal role in the territory's maritime trade during a period of significant financial crisis. Utilizing previously overlooked primary sources from the Macao court archives and the National Archives in Lisbon, Carl T. Smith reconstructs Joannes’s social and professional trajectory, including his naturalization as a Portuguese subject in 1780. Through a detailed analysis of estate inventories, business papers, and testamentary records, the study reveals a cosmopolitan figure who successfully navigated diverse cultural and linguistic spheres while maintaining his Armenian heritage. Key findings highlight Joannes’s extensive global trade network—evidenced by a variety of international currencies and luxury goods—and his substantial wealth, reflected in his ownership of a grand mansion on the Praia Pequena. Furthermore, the article explores Joannes’s intellectual life, analyzing his library of 118 volumes to illustrate a sophisticated engagement with European and Asian histories and languages. Ultimately, this biographical study serves as a vital lens through which to view the broader social and financial history of late eighteenth-century Macao, demonstrating the essential role played by the Armenian diaspora in the city's economic fabric.

This article examines the historiography of Studies on the History of China's Maritime Communications with the Overseas World, situating the theme within the framework of twentieth-century Chinese academic literature up to the early 1990s. The central hypothesis rejects readings that reduce Chinese culture to the agricultural sphere, advocating instead for a tradition that records a long trajectory of navigation, commerce, and overseas exchange with impacts on world history. Through a review of historical, geographical, and literary sources—from the accounts of Xu Fu in the pre-Qin period to the relations of the Tang dynasty—the article traces an overview of maritime communications between China and the outside world: contacts with Southeast Asia, the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Peninsula, and Persia, as well as routes such as the "maritime road of Canton" and the Bohai Sea route. The circulation of monks and travelers, exemplified by Fa Xian, is presented as indicative of the intensification of exchanges. The limitations of the research are also discussed, acknowledging the absence of more recent investigations, unpublished documents, and contemporary debates on Ming and Qing policies or on Zheng He's voyages, including controversies such as Gavin Menzies' thesis. The publication in an international edition, with translation of excerpts, aims to constitute a pilot bibliography for transnational studies on Chinese maritime communications.

This article proposes a critical reading of *Diário de uma viagem a Timor* (1882–1883), by Maria Isabel Tamagnini, in order to address the Oriental fascination and the Timorese exile as traces of a Portuguese presence in Southeast Asia in the nineteenth century. The work, written by a young companion of the new governor of Timor, Bento da França, and of a small group, stands as a unique documentary testimony of the expedition, even though the original notebook Lisboa–Singapura is missing. The analysis focuses on the three preserved notebooks (II–V), comparing them with the narrated itinerary (Singapore, Batavia, Java, Surabaya, Macassar) and with the conditions of textual production: the *Diário* is not organized in a strictly daily manner, presenting scattered periods of notes followed by blocks of reflective, memorialistic, and sociocultural observational writing. From this reading, the central themes are identified and discussed: Oriental fascination, descriptions of societies and urban practices in the visited regions, and the relationship between travel literature and the colonial administrative mission. Among the main contributions, the *Diário*'s function stands out as a rare source for the historiography of East Timor, offering a critical perspective that questions official narratives and broadens the understanding of the Portuguese presence in the East, especially with regard to Timor and its exile.

This article analyzes the historiographical and archaeological evolution of Chinese nautical technology, focusing on the phenomenon of the dugout canoe. For centuries, the Western view, influenced by travelers' accounts since Marco Polo, emphasized the idiosyncratic nature of Chinese vessels, particularly the junk, assuming the absence of logboats — a fundamental element present in other regions of the globe. However, the author demonstrates how Chinese archaeology from the second half of the 20th century deconstructed this thesis of "absence," revealing the millennia-old presence of these vessels in Chinese territory. Using as a central reference Joseph Needham's monumental work, *Science and Civilisation in China* (1971), the study examines the epistemological foundations and methodological challenges faced in compiling ancient sources and field data. The author discusses the impact of archaeological discoveries from the 1950s and 1960s and the validity of cross-cultural parallels, analyzing the mental barriers that historically limited the understanding of nautical technology in Asia. It concludes that the dugout canoe constitutes an essential technological horizon that allows situating the origins of Chinese nautical navigation within a broader regional context, integrating it into the history of Southeast Asia since the end of prehistory. The research underscores the need to reassess Chinese maritime heritage through a lens that harmonizes recent archaeological data with a critical revision of classical historiography.

This article analyzes the trajectory and decline of the Christian mission in Japan, contextualizing the Portuguese presence in the archipelago from the mid-sixteenth century. The author examines how the encounter between Portugal and Japan, marked by the introduction of firearms and the dynamization of transoceanic trade, served as the backdrop for one of the most singular missionary experiences of the Early Modern period. The acculturation strategy adopted by the Society of Jesus, initiated by Francis Xavier, is highlighted, seeking to integrate Christianity into the complex Japanese sociocultural reality through the study of the language, adaptation of rites, and emulation of institutional structures inspired by Zen Buddhism. However, the investigation focuses on the transition from initial missionary optimism to the collapse of the Christian project, exploring the methodological and jurisdictional controversy between the Jesuits and the mendicant orders. This internal dispute, combined with the consolidation of Japanese political power and the growing hostility of local religious elites, precipitated the end of the "missionary dream" in the islands of the Rising Sun. Through an analysis grounded in the Theology of History and modern historiography, the study demonstrates how the tension between different models of evangelization and local political contingencies dictated the tragic outcome of the Catholic presence in Japan, marking a decisive moment in the history of relations between the West and the Far East.

This article analyzes the historical evolution of relations between China and Japan during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, focusing on the fundamental role of Macau as an intermediary entrepôt. The author contextualizes the diplomatic and commercial fluctuations between China and Japan since antiquity, highlighting the impact of the Mongol invasions and the emergence of *wako* piracy as a consequence of the restrictions on maritime trade imposed by the Ming dynasty. The study demonstrates how political instability and imperial prohibitions on direct trade created an economic vacuum that would come to be filled by the Portuguese. The research emphasizes that the catalyst for this dynamic was the exploitation of rich silver mines in Japan from the 1530s onward, whose metal presented a value and quality superior to those of other Eastern markets. Faced with the Chinese need for silver and the Japanese demand for silk, Macau emerged as the indispensable link in a tripartite commercial system. Through a historiographical analysis grounded in the transition to the Early Modern period, Leonor Diaz Seabra concludes that Macau's prosperity resulted from its ability to mediate political tensions and economic complementarities between the two Asian powers, consolidating a trade route that defined the city's geopolitical relevance in the context of Southeast Asia.

This article examines the establishment of the Portuguese settlement at Macao in 1557 within the broader context of 16th-century Sino-Japanese maritime relations and illicit trade networks. Moving beyond traditional Eurocentric historiography, the study employs a comparative methodology that integrates Portuguese, Chinese, and Japanese sources to address the complexities of early modern East Asian expansion. The author argues that Macao’s development was fundamentally shaped by the activities of Chinese (*haikou*) and Japanese (*wokou*) maritime adventurers, whose smuggling and piracy networks created the necessary conditions for Portuguese intervention. A key finding is the role of Japan as an "invisible hand" that financed and protected Chinese maritime smugglers, effectively acting as a silent partner in the region's illicit commerce. The article emphasizes that the Portuguese arrival in Tanegashima in 1543—mediated by Chinese adventurers—was a critical precursor to the founding of Macao. By analyzing the intersection of the Ming dynasty’s maritime bans and Japan’s internal political shifts, the author demonstrates that the Portuguese settlement served as a vital strategic nexus. Ultimately, the paper concludes that the Macao outpost was less an isolated colonial achievement and more a product of the intricate, interdependent maritime dynamics between China and Japan during a period of transition in international relations.

Roderich Ptak assesses Shih-Shan Henry Tsai’s Perpetual Happiness: The Ming Emperor Yongle (University of Washington Press, 2001) as the first English-language monograph devoted exclusively to the Yongle reign (1403–1424). Tsai presents a lively, largely narrative portrait that resists dry philology and conventional militarism, organizing a chronological account around Yongle’s life while interweaving the workings of court institutions, state finance, and political networks. The study foregrounds both the emperor’s formidable political and military achievements and his sustained cultural patronage, including the lavish Yongle dadian and the distribution of Gujin Lienü Zhuan for educational purposes. Ptak notes that Tsai balances traditional concerns with new insights, building a coherent picture of Yongle as a dynamic ruler who sought grandeur through centralization, expansive campaigns, and cultural projects. The reviewer traces chapters on Yongle’s formative years, his rise to power, major political events, and the concomitant economic strains and ministerial tensions that accompanied his efforts—tensions that ultimately affected the emperor’s health and the empire’s trajectory after his death. While praising the book’s readability and balanced approach, Ptak observes occasional instances where details could be presented with greater precision. Overall, Tsai’s monograph is a valuable, nuanced contribution to Ming studies, reframing Yongle as both autocrat and cultural patron and highlighting the period’s enduring legacies.

Roderich Ptak's note analyzes the Ryukyu network in the fifteenth and early sixteenth centuries, examining how Ryukyuan merchants and rulers navigated the Ming tribute system to fashion a far-flung commercial network centered on Naha. Drawing on a wide range of primary sources (Lidai baoan, Ming shilu, Korean sillok, lishi dili, Chen Kan’s Shi Liuqiu lu, Chinese nautical treatises, local gazetteers) and supplementing with Iberian accounts and secondary literature, the study reconstructs the geography and modalities of Ryukyu trade. The article emphasizes that official tribute trade remained the legal channel for access to China, and that the three Ryukyuan polities (Zhongshan, Shannan, Shanbei) competed but also maintained rapid exchange networks with the Ming court, beginning with envoy missions to Nanjing from 1372 onward. Within this regime, Ryukyuan merchants built an extended network linking Fujian to Okinawa, mainly via tribute contacts, while integrating exchanges with Southeast Asia, and branches to Korea and Kyushu. Most commodities flowed through Naha, consolidating the island’s role as the hub of multi-regional trade. The piece also notes ancillary phenomena—Ryukyuan students studying in China, subsidies granted by the Ming, and mentions of a Mongol exile in Ryukyu—highlighting the deep political and cultural ties underpinning the trade system. The article concludes that the Ryukyu network exemplifies how tribute-era diplomacy and commerce coalesced into a durable but selective regional mercantile sphere in the fifteenth–early sixteenth centuries.

This article analyzes the fundamental influence of Chinese technological innovations on the development of modern science and technology in the West, challenging Eurocentric perspectives that attribute the exclusivity of scientific thought to the Greco-European tradition. Drawing on the seminal studies of Joseph Needham and other renowned sinologists, the author explores China's chronological precedence in crucial domains such as iron smelting using hydraulic bellows and steel production, techniques that predated corresponding European advances by many centuries. The text addresses the central paradox of the historiography of science — known as the "Needham Question" — seeking to explain why the Scientific Revolution consolidated in Europe and not in China, despite Chinese technical superiority until the fourteenth century. Through comparative analysis, Amaro discusses the geographical, social, economic, and philosophical factors that dictated distinct paths for the two civilizations, refuting the thesis that Confucianism was an intrinsic obstacle to progress. It concludes that modern science is an ecumenical construction that owes much of its initial impetus to the assimilation of knowledge and techniques originating from the Middle Kingdom, emphasizing the importance of recognizing Eastern roots in the genesis of global technological modernity.

This article examines the phenomenon of "museum fever" in Macao during the final years of the Portuguese administration, a period marked by intense political and social transition prior to the 1999 handover. Between 1993 and 1999, the rapid inauguration of several major cultural institutions signaled a shift in the territory’s self-representation, moving away from its historical reputation as a "City of Casinos" toward a new identity as a "City of Culture." Drawing on ethnographic research and cultural anthropology, the author explores how museums function as sites of ideological production and "machines for recontextualization." The study investigates the fundamental question of how material and artistic productions contribute to a society's construction of a collective self-consciousness. By analyzing the social and historical contexts of Macao’s museumification, Clayton argues that these institutions are not merely repositories of the past but are active participants in negotiating the city’s changing relationship with its heritage and its future. The article concludes that the development of Macao’s museums reflects a deliberate effort to institutionalize public meaning, providing a crucial lens through which to understand the evolving identity of a society navigating a complex period of decolonization and political integration.

This paper investigates religious syncretism in Macao through a focused study of Lian Feng Miao (The Lotus Peak Temple). Arguing that Macao's Sino-Portuguese milieu fostered a polytheistic religious life in which Buddhism and Daoism intertwine rather than compete, the author shows that Lian Feng Miao transgresses doctrinal boundaries by enshrining a broad gamut of deities regardless of sectarian affiliation. Situating the temple within Ming-period toleration of disparate beliefs and the hegemonic project of san jiao he yi, the article asks whether such a site can be classified as Buddhist or Daoist, and what its spiritual dimension reveals about each tradition. Methodologically, the study combines historical-anthropological analysis of temple practice, liturgical imagery, and the euhemeristic representation of mythological figures who are gradually constituted as immortals; it also considers Daoist and Buddhist textual strategies that legitimate their authority by weaving classical myths into ritual life. The findings show that Daoism absorbs and reinterpretates ancient Chinese beliefs, using myths and popular imagery to consolidate its autochthonous status, while Buddhism provides a compatible cosmology for reverence of a vast pantheon. The Lian Feng Miao case thus demonstrates a dynamic, inclusive religious culture in Macao, where syncretism and toleration sustain a plural sacred landscape beyond rigid sectarian boundaries.

This article presents the introduction and critical framing of the anthology "Lua no Charco", a series of translations of classical Chinese poetry by the artist and writer Fernanda Dias. The author describes the genesis of this literary project, which dates back to the fortuitous discovery, in the 1980s, of a manuscript of poems translated from Chinese sources into French. The text explores Dias's personal research trajectory to identify the original authors and her effort of lyrical transposition into the Portuguese language, a process deeply influenced by her experience in Macao, where she has resided since 1986. Adopting a perspective that combines the sensibility of the visual arts with the practice of literary translation, the article proposes poetry as an "aerial bridge of words" capable of mediating the cultural encounter between East and West. The methodology described is based on consulting reference works in Sinology and, simultaneously, on gathering oral traditions and quotations shared by the local Macao community. The work results in a free translation that prioritizes affective resonance and emotional clarity, seeking to make the aesthetics and metaphysics of Chinese lyric poetry accessible to the Portuguese-speaking reader. Ultimately, the article reflects on the role of the translator as an intercultural bridge, reaffirming the universal character of poetic language as a timeless pact with the human heart.

This article explores the evolution and characteristics of documentary resources in Macao libraries originating from Catholic and Buddhist traditions. Situated at the crossroads of East-West cultural exchange, Macao’s historical documents reflect the profound impact of religious activities on the region’s intellectual and social landscape. The author analyzes the distinct patterns of documentary creation within both religions, highlighting how Catholicism—linked to Portuguese administration and Western missions—and Buddhism—rooted in the local Chinese community—contributed to a diverse bibliographical heritage. The study notes that Catholic documents emerged from varied social engagements, including education, healthcare, and early journalism, resulting in significant collections of 16th-century missionary publications, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and archival correspondence. Conversely, Buddhist resources primarily consist of scriptures and temple-based epigraphy that mark the traditional cultural identity of the majority population. By investigating these records, the article demonstrates how religious institutions served as primary agents in the production of pluralistic documentary resources and the preservation of Western science and Chinese culture. Ultimately, the research emphasizes the unique value of Macao’s religious archives as essential repositories for understanding the historical development of the region and its role as a pivotal site for global cross-cultural communication.

This article argues that the Colégio de Macao functioned as the China mission's indispensable administrative, staffing, and training hub, while also serving as a financial nexus and safe haven, shaping the Society of Jesus' approach to East Asia from 1579 to 1623. Positioned on the doorstep of Ming China, the college was central to organizing and sustaining Jesuit expansion beyond Macao's gates, but its effectiveness was contingent on the dynamic fortunes of Japan missions. The author contends that the college's strong ties to Japan—and to the Macanese mercantile world—paradoxically constrained resource flows and political alignments for the China mission once Japan's own missions faced volatility. The study demonstrates that, although the college was well placed to support China, the evolving antagonisms between China and Japan and the logistical realities of the Ming court forced Jesuits in China to lean on self-reliance and internal networks rather than institutional support from Macao. Through critical synthesis of Jesuit correspondence, provincial reports, and colonial records, the article reconstructs the college's governance and its impact on mission strategy. The results underscore the intertwined fortunes of Macao, Japan, and China in shaping early modern Jesuit enterprise in East Asia.

This article investigates Catholic copperplate engravings produced in the late Ming dynasty, linking them to the "method for reciting the Rosary" and the illustrated life of Christ. The central hypothesis is that such engravings functioned as a pedagogical and evangelizing tool, integrating the Western visual repertoire with strategies of cultural adaptation to attract the Chinese public. Methodologically, it undertakes an iconographic analysis of the engravings, a reading of missionary sources (letters by Ricci and Ruggieri), and a review of recently published paintings and engravings, situating itself within the context of the Jesuit mission and the circulation of religious images. The study challenges the historiography that privileges only Western painters at the Qing court, highlighting the role of Catholic engraving in the circulation of liturgical images in China between the end of the Ming and the beginning of the Qing. Results indicate that the engravings not only illustrated biblical scenes but were designed to facilitate the recitation of the Rosary, functioning as a memorable support and gateway to Christian doctrine among Chinese converts; the so-called "missionary line of adaptation" employed the Chinese language and graphic creativity to make biblical narratives more credible. Conclusion: the Catholic engravings of the late Ming reveal an essential component of Sino-Western visual exchange, expanding the repertoire of liturgical images circulating in pre-Qing China and offering new understanding of the role of liturgical art in the Jesuit mission.

This study examines the Macao patois, a Portuguese-based creole that developed in Macao as a contact variety among Portuguese, Chinese, and other East–West communities, and assesses its potential role as a lingua franca among early English-speaking traders in the region. Rejecting monogenetic theories of a Sabir-derived Lingua Franca, the analysis treats Macao as a multilingual hub where cross-cultural exchange could shape English contact in the early seventeenth century. The Macao patois is known by a range of labels (dialect of the Macanese, Makista, Cristão, doçi lingua de Macau, among others), and the study adopts an interpretive historical-linguistic approach to its investigation. The argument rests on two observations. First, certain Macao patois lexical items show resemblance to English, though such resemblances are not in themselves conclusive evidence of direct transfer. Second, the patois’ vocabulary draws from a diverse array of Asian sources, consistent with Macao’s role as a principal trading interface for English, Chinese, and other communities. Together, these observations yield a plausible inference that a substantial portion of Macao patois words entered English through Macao rather than via direct African or Mediterranean routes. The study concludes that Macao patois most plausibly functioned as a lingua franca for English commerce in the early modern Asia-Pacific, highlighting Macao’s central role in the lexical history of English in East Asia.

This article examines the historical significance of the *wugongchuan*, or “Centipede Ships,” and their association with early Portuguese maritime activities in Guangdong during the first half of the sixteenth century. Drawing on key Sinological sources, most notably Li Zhaoxiang’s *Longjiang chuanchang zhi* (1553) and Shen Qi’s *Nan chuan ji* (1541), Roderich Ptak analyzes how these vessels were perceived and eventually replicated by the Ming administration. The study details the technical specifications of the *wugongchuan*, highlighting their distinctive oar-driven speed, maneuverability, and the integration of *folangji* (Portuguese) breech-loading bronze cannons—weaponry that Chinese officials recognized as superior to existing domestic technology. The author investigates the process of technological transfer, specifically focusing on the 1525 imperial mandate to construct a prototype in Nanjing using specialized shipwrights from Guangdong. By comparing textual descriptions and contemporary illustrations, the article illuminates the intersection of naval architecture, military defense, and cross-cultural encounters prior to the formal settlement of Macao. Ptak demonstrates that the *wugongchuan* serves as a critical case study in the Ming dynasty’s pragmatic response to European maritime encroachment, illustrating a period of transition where foreign naval innovations were systematically adopted to bolster Chinese coastal security.