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The article by Huang Xiaofeng presents an interpretative introduction to the long scroll "An Autumn Dawn on Lakes and Hills" ("湖山秋曉圖卷"), by Wu Yushan (吳漁山/"Yushan"), analyzing how the work articulates seventeenth-century pictorial models with concrete memories of the Macau experience. The text situates the scroll within the context of heritage circulation (collection of the Hong Kong Museum of Art) and, above all, employs the painter's own postscripts as a methodological basis for reconstructing the aesthetic intention and the author's affective relationship with the landscape. Huang argues that, although Wu declares a deliberate imitation of the Yuan masters Huang Gongwang and Wang Meng, the value of the scroll resides in the "permeability" between tradition and lived experience: the "lakes and hills" acquire "profound meanings" from places he actually observed, including Xiangshan (香山) and the territory of Macau, contemplated at a moment when artistic memory was still vividly sustained. As its principal conclusions, the article reads the work as a late project of cultural consolidation and self-reflection, in which pictorial practice—undertaken as a conscious effort before the deterioration of skill—transforms recollection into idealized nature, without negating the personal originality of Wu Yushan.

This article examines the judicial processes of homicide crimes that occurred in Macau during the Qing dynasty involving foreigners, taking as a limit the year 1849 (end of the government of João Ferreira do Amaral), a moment when a new legal order was consolidated in the territory. Based on the documentary preservation of administrative chancelleries and on records still extant in institutions such as the Torre do Tombo (Lisbon) and Chinese historical archives, the study reconstructs an overview of the 17 homicides recorded up to that point, characterizing the composition of the participants (mainly Chinese and Portuguese, as well as cases with other nationalities) and contextualizing their frequency within the demographic and spatial structure of the enclave. Methodologically, the work articulates the analysis of the cases with the evolution of Qing legal-administrative principles, especially the norms of the Great Qing Code and the Regulation associated with the 9th year of the reign of Emperor Qianlong (1743). The conclusions show that the homicides, as a rule, did not result from premeditation, evidencing a predominance of assaults and sudden conflicts, and reveal the centrality of the circuit of official circulation and hierarchical review of sentences, culminating in imperial confirmation. The comparative reading of the cases also allows identifying how Qing legal categories conditioned the qualification of the crime and the proportionality of penalties.

This article examines the commercial activities of five members of the Ye family—Cudgin, Leunqua, Giqua, Tiauqua, and Yanqua—who operated within the Canton trade system between 1720 and 1804. While maritime historiography often focuses on the dominant "large houses" such as the Yan and Pan families, Paul A. Van Dyke argues that the Ye merchants provide a vital counter-narrative, representing the "small merchants" who navigated the trade with distinct strategies. Utilizing a range of European archival sources, including records from the English, Ostend, and Danish East India companies, the study reconstructs the business operations and social trajectories of these figures. The findings reveal that most Ye merchants adopted a cautious, thrifty approach, eschewing the aggressive expansion and heavy foreign debt characteristic of their larger competitors. They typically relied on middlemen rather than direct agents in China’s interior. Significantly, the article highlights Cudgin and Yanqua as rare, documented examples of Chinese merchants who successfully retired with substantial fortunes, challenging the traditional view that such financial preservation was nearly impossible under the Canton System. By detailing their involvement in the porcelain and tea trades, the article offers a more nuanced understanding of the economic diversity, risk management, and social mobility present in the eighteenth-century Pearl River Delta.

This article examines the life and legacy of Wu Yushan (Wu Li, 1632–1718), a renowned scholar-painter and pivotal figure in the history of cultural exchange between China and the West during the Ming-Qing transition. Drawing on genealogical records, such as the "Preface to the Wu Family Tree," and historical chronicles, the author reconstructs Wu’s development within the context of his prestigious but declining scholarly lineage in Changshu. The study details Wu’s early biography, tracing the influence of his ancestors—notably the prominent Ming officials Wu Na and Wu Tang—and the personal hardships that shaped his youth, including the early loss of his father and the socio-political upheaval following the Manchu conquest. Central to the narrative is Wu’s multifaceted identity as "Mojing Daoren" (the Ink-well Daoist) and his mastery of traditional Chinese aesthetics. The article explores how his artistic practice, particularly his landscape and "bamboo and rock" paintings, reflects both his classical training and his later transformative experiences. A significant focus is placed on Wu’s sojourn in Macao, a period that facilitated his deep engagement with Western scholarship and Catholicism. By synthesizing biographical detail with art historical analysis, the author argues that Wu Yushan represents a unique intersection of Chinese literati culture and early modern global exchange, positioning his works as essential artifacts of Sino-Western intellectual synthesis.

This chronology details the key milestones of European expansion towards East Asia between 1474 and 1642, focusing on the diplomatic, maritime, and commercial competition between the crowns of Portugal and Castile. The text systematizes the historical trajectory from Toscanelli’s theoretical proposals and the early explorations of the African coast to the consolidation of the “Estado da Índia” and the subsequent penetration into the Far East. Through a sequential analysis, the author highlights crucial events such as the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the opening of the maritime route by Vasco da Gama (1498), and the strategic assertion of figures like Afonso de Albuquerque. The work explores the inherent tensions in this process of expansion, namely the conflict between the ideal of the Crusade and the dynamics of free trade, as well as the importance of key entrepôts such as Malacca, Hormuz, and Goa. By contextualizing the European "race," the chronology provides an essential documentary basis for understanding the process of early globalization and the complex encounters and misunderstandings in the South China Sea. This survey serves as a reference instrument for the study of logistics, foreign policy, and the network of intercultural contacts that enabled the establishment of the Portuguese presence in China and Japan.

The article presents a bilingual **Glossary** (Portuguese/English) integrated into the dossier "**European Encounters and Missed Encounters in the South China Sea** (II)", dedicated to the history of the Luso-Dutch system in the Asian context. Its central contribution lies in **compiling, standardizing, and clarifying** toponymic names, functional ethnonyms, offices, vessels, and recurring textual references found in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century sources (e.g., ports, dynasties, sultanates, and cartographic designations). Methodologically, the text operates as a mediating tool between the language of chronicles, cartographies, and historical documents, on the one hand, and contemporary academic usage, on the other: it identifies equivalences (e.g., alternative forms and transliterations), defines technical-institutional terms, and provides approximate locations, while also indicating semantic meanings where relevant (such as descriptive categories of people and types of weapons). As a result, the glossary facilitates the **cross-interpretation** of heterogeneous materials—particularly those pertaining to maritime expansion and political confrontations in southern China and Southeast Asia—thereby reducing terminological ambiguities. Thus, the article implicitly concludes that lexical densification and conceptual normalization are indispensable conditions for consistent historical analyses of European encounters in the Asian maritime space.

This article analyzes the relationship of Dutch power in the East in 1621, based on the detailed report prepared by André Coelho, a Portuguese captain active in the region. Employing a methodology of documentary analysis, the text retrieves and modernizes the unpublished manuscript, currently preserved at the National Library of Lisbon, to understand Portuguese strategies and perceptions in the face of Dutch expansion in the South China Sea and the Moluccas. Coelho's report reveals a thorough assessment of Dutch occupation across various islands and fortresses, as well as the growing threat to Portuguese interests in the region, highlighting the complexity of the maritime conflict between the two colonial powers. The military plans outlined, although unrealized, reflect an attempt at organized resistance through a powerful armada assembled in Manila with the objective of eliminating the Dutch presence and regaining control of trade routes and strategic islands. The analysis underscores the perception of the weakening of the Portuguese empire and the importance of a structured military response to the rise of the Dutch. It concludes by emphasizing the document's relevance for understanding the power struggles in Iberian and Dutch maritime expansion in Asia during the early seventeenth century.

This article presents an English translation of a historical account detailing the early maritime expeditions of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) to East Asia following its formation in 1602. Extracted from the 1725 French collection by René-Auguste Constantin de Reneville—which drew from the earlier works of the De Bry brothers and Isaac Commelin—the text chronicles the 1603 mission of Cornelis van Veen. Dispatched by Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck from Bantam to establish trade with China, Van Veen commanded the ships *Nassau* and *Erasmus* on a voyage that culminated in a significant confrontation with Portuguese interests in the Pearl River Delta. The narrative focuses on the Dutch flotilla’s arrival in Macao in July 1603, where they encountered the "Black Ship," a Portuguese carrack heavily laden with silk and gold destined for Nagasaki. The account details the strategic capture of this vessel, the subsequent transfer of its valuable cargo, and its destruction by fire. By documenting this early instance of Dutch-Portuguese conflict, the article highlights the VOC’s aggressive initial efforts to dismantle the Portuguese maritime monopoly and penetrate the lucrative Sino-Japanese trade routes. This primary source provides critical insights into the "encounters and clashes" that defined European expansion and competition in the South China Sea during the early seventeenth century.

This article presents an English translation of a seminal primary source documenting Olivier van Noort’s 1600 expedition to Manila and Brunei. Extracted from Isaac Commelin’s 1645 collection *Begin ende Voortgang*, the narrative details the Dutch perspective of the naval conflict between Van Noort’s fleet and the Spanish forces commanded by Antonio de Morga. This engagement marks the initiation of protracted Dutch-Spanish hostilities in the Philippines aimed at destabilizing the Manila-Acapulco galleon route—a conflict that persisted until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Beyond the military confrontation, the account chronicles Van Noort’s subsequent arrival in Borneo. This landfall proved strategically significant, offering the Dutch critical insights into the commercial networks of Southeast Asia, particularly those involving Chinese and Japanese maritime circuits. A notable highlight of the narrative is the documentation of a Japanese "red seal" vessel captained by a Portuguese mariner, underscoring the cross-cultural and multi-ethnic nature of early seventeenth-century Asian maritime trade. By providing this translated excerpt, the text offers valuable primary-source evidence regarding early European competition in the South China Sea and the complex socio-economic landscape of the region during the transition to Dutch maritime expansion.

This article presents a translated excerpt from the 1645 "Relation d’un voyage aux Indes orientales par un gentilhomme français," a rare primary source document written by an anonymous French soldier serving the Dutch East India Company (VOC). As one of only two known 17th-century French accounts of travel through the South China Sea in the service of the VOC, the text provides a unique non-Dutch European perspective on the company’s maritime and colonial operations. The narrative focuses specifically on the rise of the Chinese corsair and admiral Iquan (Zheng Zhilong), tracing his trajectory from a humble merchant at the Dutch fort in Formosa (Taiwan) to the commander of a formidable pirate fleet of over eight hundred junks. The author details the complex geopolitical dynamics of the region, illustrating Iquan’s shifting alliances with Dutch authorities, his eventual appointment as a Ming imperial admiral, and the subsequent diplomatic and financial tensions with VOC officials like General Hendrik Brouwer. Ultimately, this account serves as a significant historical record of the socio-political volatility and cross-cultural "encounters and clashes" that defined the 17th-century maritime frontier in East Asia.

This article presents a primary source account, translated into English, detailing Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck’s 1604 expedition to China—a pivotal moment in the early history of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in Asia. Following the establishment of the first VOC settlement in Bantam, Van Warwijck sought to initiate formal trade relations with the Ming Empire, leveraging the diplomatic influence of the Siamese Kingdom. The narrative, excerpted from seventeenth-century travelogues by Cornelis van Veen and Sebaldt de Weert, documents the strategic and military tensions between the nascent Dutch presence and the established Portuguese interests in Macao. Key findings highlight the multifaceted resistance the Dutch encountered: the Portuguese actively sabotaged Dutch diplomatic efforts in Canton through misinformation and political pressure, while the Chinese authorities ultimately rebuffed Van Warwijck’s overtures with a significant naval show of force in Fujian. Furthermore, the text provides historical context for the escalating hostilities in the South China Sea, including the capture of the Portuguese “Black Ship” in 1603 and the subsequent seizure of the *Santo António* in 1605. Ultimately, the account offers a critical perspective on the geopolitical complexities and the "clash of empires" that defined European maritime expansion and trade competition in East Asia during the early seventeenth century.

This article presents a translated excerpt from Antonio de Morga’s seminal work, *Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas* (1609), documenting the naval confrontation between Spanish colonial forces and a Dutch fleet led by Olivier van Noort in December 1600. Set against the backdrop of early seventeenth-century European maritime rivalries in the South China Sea, the text describes the arrival of Dutch privateers in Philippine waters and the subsequent engagement off the coast of Cavite. The battle resulted in the sinking of the Spanish merchant-turned-warship *San Diego* and heavy casualties, while Van Noort’s surviving crew eventually completed the first Dutch circumnavigation of the globe. As a primary historical document, this account provides critical insights into the strategic challenges of the Spanish administration in Manila and serves as Morga’s personal defense against subsequent charges of military incompetence and cowardice brought by the *Consejo de Indias*. By contrasting Morga’s perspective with contemporary Dutch narratives, the article highlights the intersection of colonial governance, maritime warfare, and the personal quest for honor in the early modern Pacific.

This article examines the Dutch attack on Macau in 1622, focusing on the narrative of the Dominican friar António do Rosário, who served as interim administrator of the local bishopric at the time. Drawing on primary sources, including António do Rosário’s account and contemporary documents, the study highlights previously unexamined aspects of the episode, such as the prediction of the arrival of the Anglo-Dutch squadron blockading Manila, and details the action of a flotilla of seven junks commanded by Francisco Tavares, which managed to break the port siege and ensure the arrival of Portuguese vessels from India and the south. The analysis also critically evaluates António do Rosário’s interpretation of the role of Macau’s captain-major, Lopo Sarmento de Carvalho, revealing discrepancies with other contemporary testimonies. It concludes that Macau’s resistance was marked by a combination of military strategies and heroic actions, which contributed to the effective defense of the city against Dutch threats, reinforcing the importance of local agency in preserving the territory during this period of European conflict in the South China Sea region.

This article analyzes the voyage of Cornelis Matelief de Jonge to the coasts of China in 1607, highlighting his navigation experiences, encounters, and the obstacles faced by the Portuguese and Dutch in attempting to establish commercial relations in the region. Using primary sources, such as the admiral's diary published in 1608, the research addresses the diplomatic, cultural, and logistical complexities, including difficulties in understanding Chinese protocols and the resistance of local authorities. The text reveals the limitations of European presence on the Chinese coast, exemplifying the tense encounter between Dutch forces and the mandarins of Canton, as well as the confrontation with the Portuguese who pursued the admiral. The main findings indicate that, despite attempts to establish contact, diplomatic relations remained fruitless at the time, reflecting the cultural and political barriers that marked early European efforts in the region. It is concluded that Matelief's voyage highlights the initial difficulties faced by the Dutch in expanding their commercial and diplomatic presence in China, contributing to an understanding of the early interactions between Europeans and the Ming dynasty on the East Asian coast.

This article presents an excerpt from the travel accounts of Élie Ripon, a Swiss mercenary in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) during the early 17th century. Ripon’s memoirs provide a rare first-hand perspective on the VOC’s military campaigns against Portuguese and Spanish interests in the South China Sea, most notably the failed Dutch assault on Macao in 1622. The narrative offers significant historiographical value by confirming known accounts while introducing previously undocumented details regarding the city's defense, specifically the active participation of Jesuit priests in combat and the mobilization of enslaved people by the Portuguese. Furthermore, the account documents Ripon’s experiences during Dutch efforts to establish strategic bases in the Pescadores archipelago and Formosa (referred to as Tauan). Beyond military history, Ripon provides ethnographic observations of the Kingdom of Champa and describes naval skirmishes and the destruction of Iberian shipbuilding efforts along the coast of modern-day Vietnam. This primary source material serves as a crucial document for understanding European colonial rivalries, the logistics of the VOC’s expansion in East Asia, and the diverse social actors involved in the defense of Macao during a pivotal era of maritime conflict.

This article presents a contemporary historical account by the Jesuit Fernão Guerreiro concerning the Dutch assault on Macao in 1601, led by Admiral Jacob van Neck. Originally published in Lisbon in 1605 as part of the *Relação Anual*, the text serves as a vital primary source for understanding the defensive strategies and socio-religious dynamics of Macao at the turn of the 17th century. Drawing upon privileged access to missionary correspondence, Guerreiro provides a detailed reconstruction of the city's response to the arrival of the Dutch fleet. The narrative highlights Macao's significant military vulnerability at the time, noting the absence of formal walls or a standing garrison. Consequently, the Jesuit College of Saint Paul emerged as the primary site of refuge and defense for the local population and their property. Beyond the logistical aspects of the conflict, the text illuminates the intense religious atmosphere of the Counter-Reformation, which framed the treatment and ultimate suffering of the Dutch captives. By situating the 1601 episode within the broader context of Luso-Dutch rivalry in the South China Sea, this anthology entry—modernized by Rui Manuel Loureiro—offers profound insights into the pivotal role played by the Society of Jesus in both the moral and physical preservation of Macao during the early stages of European imperial clashes in East Asia.

This article analyzes the evolution of European geographical and historical knowledge of the South China Sea during the transitional period between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (c. 1580–1630). The study focuses on the critical moment when Iberian hegemony began to be challenged by the emergence of Northern European commercial powers, namely Holland and England. Taking as its starting point the iconography and texts of the *Collectiones Peregrinationum* (specifically the *Petits Voyages*) edited by the De Bry family, the author examines the first printed engraving of Macau (1606) and the context of Admiral Jacob van Neck's expedition in 1601. The research explores the tension between the Luso-Jesuit "experimental vanguard" and the systematization of geographical knowledge produced in the major European publishing centers. The article discusses how the circulation of travel accounts and contemporary cartography operated a synthesis between the classical tradition and the new realities of maritime expansion, resulting in narratives that, although fragmentary or "partial," were fundamental to the construction of a systematic image of the East. Through this analysis, the author highlights the uses, omissions, and adaptations of Portuguese empirical knowledge in European literature that accompanied the rise of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the reconfiguration of power in Southeast Asia.

This article examines the account of the affairs of the South, as described by Francisco Vieira de Figueiredo in 1664, offering an analysis of the political, economic, and maritime situation in the South China Sea region during the seventeenth century. Drawing on a biography of the Portuguese adventurer and merchant, the study highlights his diplomatic and commercial missions with Asian powers and the Dutch, as well as his observations on the conflicts and the decline of international trade in the region, including the impact of the cessation of trade with Japan and the strategies of resistance adopted by the Portuguese in the face of Dutch and Chinese advances. The narrative reveals the resilience of Portuguese activities in the area, even in the face of difficulties imposed by political conflicts and the presence of rival powers, such as the Dutch, who held strategic bases in the region. Using primary sources, above all Vieira de Figueiredo's account, and Boxer's biography, the article analyses the context of European encounters and missed connections in the South China Sea, highlighting the survival strategies of the Portuguese elites and the complexity of international relations in that period. It concludes by emphasising the importance of these accounts for understanding the Portuguese persistence in the region and the power dynamics among European and Asian nations in the seventeenth century.

This article presents an excerpt from the autobiographical narrative of Jacques de Coutre, a Flemish merchant and soldier who lived approximately thirty years in the East in the service of the Portuguese empire. The text focuses specifically on the period between 1597 and 1602, detailing his voyage from Malacca to the Philippines, his stay in Manila, and his subsequent return to Southeast Asia. Based on the manuscript *Vida de Iaques de Coutre*, held at the Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid, the chronicle offers a privileged glimpse into European "encounters and disencounters" in the South China Sea at a moment of transition and conflict. De Coutre describes in detail his interactions with the Dutch fleets of Jacob van Neck and Jacob van Heemskerck in Patane, following their clashes with Portuguese forces in Macau and Java. The narrative reveals the complex network of espionage, trade, and diplomacy that defined the era. The account highlights the author's extraordinary social and political mobility, whose ease in moving between Portuguese, Dutch, and Malay milieus raises questions about the ambiguity of his loyalties. Ultimately, the text illustrates the vulnerability of Portuguese strongholds in the face of the rising Dutch presence and the fundamental role of cosmopolitan intermediaries in maintaining strategic intelligence in the region.

This article analyzes the voyage of Joris van Spilbergen to the Philippines and the Moluccas in 1615, contextualizing his expedition within the dynamics of colonial conflict between Holland, Spain, and Portugal in the early seventeenth century. Through a documentary analysis of Spilbergen's narrative, attributed to Jan Corneloszoon May and published in 1619, the study investigates the strategies of piracy, diplomacy, and militarism employed by the Dutch in their quest to establish a colonial presence and trade routes in Southeast Asia. The article highlights that, although the armistice of 1609 officially ceased hostilities between Spain and Holland in Europe, conflicts persisted at the colonial level, evidencing a continuity of war in overseas territories. The accounts emphasize naval actions against the coasts of the Viceroyalty of Peru, New Spain, and Manila, as well as attempts at reconnaissance and threats to Spanish and Chinese interests in the region. The narrative also reveals the complexities of indigenous and colonial relations, a central theme in understanding Dutch expansion strategies. The conclusions underscore the importance of Spilbergen's narrative as a historical source, while also evidencing the degree of clandestinity and controversy involved in the circulation of such information at the time.