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This foreword introduces the second volume of a thematic project in the *Review of Culture* (RCI) dedicated to "European Encounters and Clashes in the South China Sea." Focusing on the 17th century, the issue compiles an anthology of primary sources documenting the complex interactions between European powers—primarily the Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch—and the Asian world. The author highlights how the Portuguese maintained their strategic position in Macao as commercial intermediaries between the Ming Empire and the rest of Asia through a combination of diplomacy, trade, and military defense, despite persistent challenges from rival European nations. The selected texts, spanning the period from 1597 to 1664, include accounts from a diverse range of observers, such as the merchant Jacques de Coutre, the traveler Peter Mundy, and various Dutch navigators and Portuguese religious figures. Many of these documents are published here for the first time in Portuguese or English, featuring translations from original Dutch, Castilian, and French manuscripts. Supplemented by two original scholarly studies on the construction of European geographical knowledge and the Dutch assaults on Macao, the volume also includes pedagogical tools such as a commented chronology and a comprehensive glossary. This collection offers a representative sampling of 17th-century geo-strategic, maritime, and personal narratives, providing essential insights into the cross-cultural and inter-imperial dynamics that shaped the maritime history of East Asia.

This article analyzes the Portuguese reactions and perceptions in the face of the arrival of the first Dutch expeditions to the East, initiated with Cornelis de Houtman's voyage in 1595. Although modern historiography has extensively explored the construction of the Dutch empire, the contemporary Portuguese view of this rupture of their commercial exclusivity has received less systematic attention. The author contextualizes the Portuguese presence in Asia at the end of the sixteenth century, distinguishing between the administrative and military structure of the Estado da Índia and the so-called "shadow empire," driven by the private initiative of merchants and soldiers. Through a preliminary survey of documentary sources and reports from the period, the study highlights the strategic vulnerability of the Portuguese possessions in Southeast Asia and the Far East — namely Malacca, Macao, and the Moluccas — in contrast with the more consolidated network in western India. The central argument, synthesized in the title "Without the South there is no India," suggests that the Portuguese understood early on that the loss of control over the spice routes and the southern regions would compromise the economic viability and survival of the entire Estado da Índia. The text concludes that the Dutch incursion was perceived as an existential challenge that threatened to dismantle the complex network of trading posts and fortresses built over the course of a century.

This article examines the account of Salvador Dias, a captive from Macau seized by the Dutch between 1622 and 1626 on Formosa Island, present-day Taiwan. Drawing on primary sources, including his testimony documented shortly after his escape, the author investigates the conditions of his capture, the details of the Dutch presence on the island, and the trade and defense strategies employed by the occupiers. The analysis highlights Dias’s understanding of fortification, local resources, and Dutch commercial activities with Fujian, as well as his assessment of the strategic impact of the occupation of Formosa on the regional situation and the Southeast Asian trade route. The article also discusses Dias’s recommendations for an alliance between Macau and Manila as a means to contain the Dutch presence, revealing an articulated perception of the threat to Iberian security and commercial interests in the region. Through Dias’s narrative, the study underscores the complexity of European encounters in China and Southeast Asia, illustrating the dynamics of conflict, espionage, and colonial diplomacy in the seventeenth-century context. The findings contribute to an understanding of Formosa’s strategic importance in the Euro-Asian rivalry of the period and reinforce the relevance of personal narrative in the colonial and maritime history of Macau.

This article presents and contextualizes an excerpt from the work *Itinerário de las Missiones del India Oriental* (1649), authored by the Augustinian friar Sebastião Manrique (c. 1590-1669). The text focuses on the troubled voyage undertaken by the missionary between Manila and Macau in the period from 1637 to 1639, situated within the context of European "encounters and missed encounters" in the South China Sea. After his attempt to enter Japan was thwarted by the violent persecutions against Catholicism, Manrique undertakes a return journey marked by adverse conditions. The account offers a vivid description of the perils of seventeenth-century navigation, highlighting the storm that forced his vessel to winter in Cochinchina (present-day Vietnam). Beyond its documentary value concerning maritime risks and missionary life, Manrique's narrative reveals fundamental aspects of seventeenth-century regional geopolitics. The author underscores the growing economic complementarity and the instinctive military alliance between the settlements of Manila and Macau, united by the need for resistance against the pressure and expansion of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). This anthology thus constitutes an essential primary source for the study of exchange networks, Iberian diplomacy in Asia, and the history of the Order of Saint Augustine in the Far East.

This article analyzes the Dutch nautical expeditions along the coast of China during the period from 1622 to 1624, contextualizing them within the framework of European exchanges and confrontations in the South China Sea region. Using primary sources, such as the accounts of Seyger van Rechteren and records from the travel diary, the study examines the Dutch presence in the region, especially the settlement on the Pescadores Islands and the diplomatic negotiations between the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the Chinese Empire. The narrative highlights the strategic and military role of Dutch actions, including the establishment of fortifications and the conflict with the Spanish and Portuguese in the area of Macao. Moreover, the article evaluates the effects of these operations on the dynamics of trade and power relations in the region, evidencing Chinese resistance to European incursions and the inhumane conditions faced by Chinese prisoners captured by the Dutch. It concludes that these military and diplomatic encounters were essential to the consolidation of the Dutch presence in the area, while also revealing the complexities of intercultural contacts during the seventeenth century, marked by confrontations, negotiations, and negotiations of sovereignty.

This article analyzes the experience of Willem Ysbrantsz Bontekoe, whose 1622 travel narrative offers a unique perspective on European encounters and confrontations in the South China Sea. Through an analysis of Bontekoe’s account, the text addresses the Dutch attempt to conquer Macau, an action that reflected the shift in Dutch colonial policy from peaceful negotiations to aggressive military actions, within the context of the relations between Spain and the Netherlands and the anti-Iberian alliances with the English. The article also investigates the military strategies, the multilateral profile of the forces involved (including Japanese, Malays, and peoples of Banda and Gujarat), and the reactions of the Portuguese defenders and local civilians, who, despite Dutch superiority, managed to repel the invasion, resulting in the disastrous withdrawal of the Dutch to Penghu. Furthermore, based on Bontekoe’s testimony, the article discusses the dynamics of European confrontation in the region and the complexity of maritime, commercial, and military relations in the seventeenth century. It concludes by emphasizing the importance of Bontekoe’s narrative as a source for understanding colonial history, European rivalries, and the prominence of local actors in the maritime and cultural context of the South China Sea, reinforcing the role of military strategies in shaping the colonial landscape in Asia.

This article analyzes the complex political and commercial dynamics that defined Macao’s survival in the second half of the seventeenth century, a period of profound instability marked by the dynastic transition between the Ming and Qing. The author examines how the Portuguese settlement, geographically isolated and with reduced Crown control from Goa, was forced to redefine its strategies in the face of the collapse of its traditional trade networks—notably the loss of the Japanese market in 1640 and the fall of Malacca to the Dutch in 1641. Through detailed historical analysis, the study explores Macao’s precarious position amid the Chinese civil war, internal revolts, and the Manchu Tartars’ incursions. The article argues that the continuity of the Portuguese presence depended on a pragmatic management of interests, characterized by a policy of “compromises and subservience.” This stance allowed the city to navigate between its initial loyalty to the Ming pretenders in Southern China and the inevitable submission to the authority of the new Qing dynasty under Emperor Shunzhi. Ultimately, the research demonstrates that Macao’s survival resulted from its capacity to adapt to the political-economic transformations of the Middle Kingdom, reaffirming its role as an indispensable strategic and commercial entrepôt in the South China Sea.

This article examines the entry and expansion of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) into the South China Sea during the 17th century. By the time of the first Dutch arrival in 1596, the region already supported a sophisticated maritime network involving Chinese, Japanese, and Portuguese actors. The author analyzes the Dutch attempts to integrate into these established trading circuits, focusing on the logistical and economic challenges posed by the monsoon system, local monopolies, and the pervasive presence of piracy. A significant portion of the study explores the Dutch experience in Banten, where they encountered a dominant Chinese merchant class that controlled the pepper trade and the local currency system (picis). Van Veen argues that early Dutch efforts were characterized by a struggle to bypass these middlemen and the disadvantageous exchange rates for silver. The article details the strategic transition from the short-term profit motives of early voyages to the more systemic regional intrusions of the VOC. By evaluating the clashes and negotiations with Portuguese interests in Macao and the shifting trade policies of the Chinese and Japanese authorities, the author highlights the factors that dictated Dutch success or failure. Ultimately, the paper provides a comprehensive overview of how the Dutch navigated the complex socio-economic landscape of the South China Sea to establish themselves as a dominant maritime power.

本文考察了17至18世紀國家貿易及中國明礬商品化在東亞與南亞紡織生產中所發揮的重要原材料作用。通過運用未出版的歐洲檔案文獻——尤其是荷蘭東印度公司（VOC）的時價表、船運清單與銷售報告——作者分析了中國生產中心與印度紡織品市場之間的供需動態。研究聚焦明礬作為媒染劑在原工業化紡織部門中的功能，詳述其在區域港口城市的開採、運輸與銷售過程。通過結合天然染色的技術要求與商業數據，本文凸顯了亞洲與歐洲參與者在海洋經濟中的能動性。該研究將此貿易置於更廣泛的港口—腹地關係史學脈絡，以及從清朝權威鞏固到英國商業霸權崛起的權力格局變遷之中。最終，本文主張以更整合的視角理解明礬等特定商品如何促進了亞洲內部的經濟與文化交流，並就界定早期現代亞洲經濟（殖民轉型之前）的技術與商業互動網絡提供初步綜述。

This article analyzes the Chinese perception of the three major European maritime powers—Portugal, Spain, and Holland—that arrived in the Far East during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Designated by the authors as the "three maritime musketeers," these actors established the first direct contacts with Ming China, triggering a process of mutual representation in a context of profound cultural asymmetry. Adopting a perspective inverse to traditional Eurocentric studies, the research focuses on the collective Chinese imaginary and the terminology used to classify the newcomers, such as *fulangji* (the Portuguese), *lüsong* (the Spaniards), and the "red-haired barbarians" (the Dutch). Through the examination of primary sources, including accounts by local authorities, travel literature, and testimonies of mandarins who interacted with the Macau entrepôt, the study explores the impact of Sinocentric mentality on the cartography and political geography of the period. The authors argue that these narratives were fundamental to the construction of the image of the exotic "other" within the imperial tributary system. By documenting the earliest impressions recorded by Chinese brushes, the article offers an essential contribution to the understanding of mentalities and the evolution of geographical knowledge in China, evidencing how intellectual isolation was gradually challenged by these encounters and missed encounters in the South China Sea.

This article analyzes the transition of the religious and geopolitical landscape in Japan at the turn of the seventeenth century, marked by the end of the Catholic monopoly and the arrival of the first Protestant Europeans. For fifty years, the Christian presence was perceived by the Japanese authorities as a unified bloc, despite tensions between the Iberian crowns. However, the arrival of the Dutch ship *Liefde* in 1600 and the subsequent protection granted by Tokugawa Ieyasu to its crew introduced a new variable into the European presence in the Far East. Drawing on documentary sources from the Society of Jesus—namely the correspondence of Alessandro Valignano and Bishop D. Luís Cerqueira—and on accounts by Portuguese contemporaries, the author examines the immediate reaction of the Jesuits and the agents of the Macau trade to the intrusion of the "red-haired men" (*kômôjin*). The study highlights the strategic importance of military technology, specifically the use of European artillery by Ieyasu at decisive moments such as the Battle of Sekigahara and the sieges of Osaka. It concludes that, although the immediate commercial threat posed by the newcomers was initially limited, their presence irreversibly altered the dynamics of influence, challenging Luso-Jesuit hegemony and laying the groundwork for new diplomatic and religious conflicts in the Japanese archipelago.

This article examines the intersection of commerce and diplomacy in the early modern encounter between Europe and Asia, focusing on the activities of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). Using the 1596 expedition to Banten as a primary case study, the author illustrates how Dutch merchants were compelled to assume diplomatic roles, adopting titles, rituals, and protocols to navigate Asian political landscapes. The study situates these interactions within a comparative framework, contrasting the emerging European Westphalian system—defined by sovereign hierarchy, reciprocity, and permanent embassies—with the diverse diplomatic traditions of Southeast Asia. Van Goor investigates the extent to which the Dutch adapted to local customs versus maintaining Western diplomatic norms, exploring the frequent tensions between commercial objectives and political representation. By analyzing the "merchant-diplomat" as a central figure, the article argues that diplomatic engagement was not merely an adjunct to trade but a prerequisite for it. The findings highlight the complexity of early modern cross-cultural relations, where the successful negotiation of hierarchy and sovereignty was as vital to the VOC’s interests as the acquisition of commodities. Through this analysis, the author demonstrates how embassies served as a primary illustration of the evolving power dynamics and mutual (mis)understandings between European newcomers and Asian states.

This case study analyzes Pêro Vaz de Siqueira, merchant and shipowner, as an example of European agency in the South China Sea, situated within the Macau–China–Japan–Southeast Asia axis. The central hypothesis is that Siqueira's career demonstrates how, under the Iberian Union, Portuguese merchants mobilized entrepôt networks, navigation, and credit to maintain the flow of goods between Japan, China, and the markets of Southeast Asia, even in the face of shifting power dynamics and Dutch competition. Drawing on Portuguese archival sources and specialized literature, the article reconstructs trajectories, routes, and commodity flows (silver, silk, gold, sandalwood, spices), as well as the risks (storms, persecutions) that marked the voyages. In particular, the text emphasizes the role of Macau as the gateway for merchants to Japan and China, the commercial intermediation that intensified after the prohibition of direct contact with the Japanese, and the circumvention of Padroado policy. The closure of trade with Japan in 1639 and the rise of the Dutch are presented as critical junctures that forced the reconfiguration of routes (Makassar–Flores–Solor–Timor) and the maintenance of mercantile dynamism. It is concluded that figures such as Siqueira embody the complex alliance between maritime economy and missionary action in the Portuguese macro-Asian space up to the seventeenth century.

This article analyzes Taiwan between 1624 and 1684, a period during which the island ceased to be peripheral and became a strategic space in Southeast Asian trade, a stage for disputes among Chinese, Dutch, and Iberians. Drawing on a documentary approach that combines Dutch, Iberian, and Chinese sources, the study investigates how major geopolitical changes intersected with local dynamics, shaping trade flows, migration networks, and power relations. Among these are the dynastic union of Castile and Portugal under Philip II and the Flemish rebellion, which projected European presence in the East, as well as transformations in Japan under Tokugawa Ieyasu, and the Manchu invasion of China in 1644, which turned Taiwan into a Ming stronghold and later a base for integration into the Qing empire. The text describes the Dutch occupation of the southwestern coast (1624–1662) and the Castilian fortifications in the north (1626–1642), articulated by the presence of Chinese merchant communities on the western coasts and the mobility of native communities. Based on demographic estimates and accounts of fortifications, it reveals Taiwan’s role as a space of interconnection between commercial networks and imperial power dynamics, as well as processes of assimilation of indigenous peoples (Ami, Kuvalan, Puyuma). It concludes that Taiwan in this period emerges as a strategic key to the regional system, gradually integrating into the Chinese empire and influencing perceptions of border, cooperation, and conflict between Europeans and Chinese.

本文重新审视了1603年的圣卡塔琳娜号事件——当时悬挂葡萄牙国旗的大帆船圣卡塔琳娜号自澳门启航，载有数百名士兵、商人与乘客，驶往马六甲和果阿，途中在新加坡附近海域被荷兰海军上将雅各布·范海姆斯凯克俘获。该事件被视为十七世纪殖民扩张与现代国际法兴起过程中的一个里程碑，揭示了亚洲内部贸易、海上暴力与国家政策之间相互交织的动态关系。博施贝格认为，该战利品非凡的商业价值——经由公开拍卖而倍增——既暴露了劫掠私掠行为对荷兰人的盈利性，也揭示了葡属印度国家（Estado da Índia）在新加坡海峡这一传统上葡式海上网络薄弱环节的蓄意脆弱性。此次劫掠迫使荷兰人采取更具侵略性、更具法律论证的袭掠战略，同时促使葡萄牙人重新审视其在东南亚群岛地区的安全安排；从更宏观的视野来看，该事件与海洋自由问题的初期争论相关联。雨果·格劳秀斯对海姆斯凯克行为的早期辩护——其后影响了《海洋自由论》（1609年）与《战争与和平法》（1625年）——被证明其思想根源可追溯至圣卡塔琳娜号事件。本文运用微观史分析方法，借鉴马丁·范伊特瑟姆的近著，将该事件置于十七世纪初国际贸易、法律与外交的初生框架之中加以定位。

This study analyzes European encounters in the South China Sea, with particular attention to Macau, Manila, and the Dutch presence, in order to demonstrate how the dynamics among Portuguese powers, modern states, and local mercantile networks shaped commerce and the politico-cultural configurations of the region. The central argument holds that the intertwining of two Portuguese systems of power—a Estado da Índia supported by naval and military apparatus, and a shadow empire fueled by the private initiative of merchants—produced a network of commercial bases extending from Malacca to the southern coast of China, with Macau emerging around 1557 as a logistical hub articulating Canton with the markets of the South China Sea and beyond. The circulation of valuable commodities (silks, porcelains, spices, metals) was only feasible through concessions recognized by the Chinese authorities, whose policy oscillated between encouragement and restriction. The study also considers historical language: the term 'Portuguese' encompasses diverse and hybrid identities, reflecting the cosmopolitan character of merchants in the region. The treatment of Manila and the Dutch highlights European competition and the necessary renegotiations of commercial networks, as well as the opportunities and tensions between state intervention and private initiative. It concludes that Macau functioned as a crucial link in the diffusion of Sino-European trade, while the Dutch ascendancy reconfigured the mercantile map of Southeast Asia and the Yangtze delta.

This preliminary note introduces the first of two thematic volumes of the *Revista de Cultura* dedicated to the analysis of the complex European "encounters and mismatches" in the South China Sea during the Early Modern Period. The author contextualizes the initial Portuguese primacy in the region following the conquest of Malacca in 1511 and the subsequent consolidation of Macao as a vital entrepôt for trade with China and Japan. It examines the subsequent competition established by the Spanish presence in Manila and the aggressive expansion of the Dutch and English chartered companies, whose incursions in the seventeenth century profoundly altered the balance of power and the networks of exchange in maritime Asia. The text argues that the historiography of this period has often been limited by nationalist perspectives or by the restricted use of sources in a single language. To overcome these gaps, the present issue brings together ten contributions from international experts, seeking to offer an integrated and multidisciplinary view of the dynamics of cooperation, conflict, and diplomacy in the South China Sea. The author concludes that this compilation of scholarly studies serves as an indispensable analytical preface for the subsequent volume, which will be dedicated to the publication and analysis of seventeenth-century documentary sources produced by the various European protagonists that operated in the region.

This article investigates the practice and survival of exorcism rituals in Macau, contextualizing them within the long Chinese cosmological and spiritual tradition. The author, Ana Maria Amaro, explores the roots of these rituals in Taoist, Buddhist, and Confucian traditions, highlighting the historical figure of the Emperor and the literati as agents of protection against malevolent forces. The study details the magical dimension attributed to writing, calligraphy brushes, official seals, and classical texts, which functioned as powerful talismans and demonifuges capable of curing illnesses and repelling nefarious influences. In the specific context of Macau, the analysis focuses on the persistence of these beliefs and practices among the Luso-descendant community ("filhos-da-terra") until the end of the 20th century. The phenomenon of "bagate" — a form of witchcraft or possession by "errand souls" (gui) — stands out, as do the exorcism rites necessary to nullify it. Through an approach grounded in cultural anthropology and historical observation, the research reveals how these ancient rituals and faith in spiritual mediation resisted modernization, illustrating the complex intersection between magic, traditional medicine, and the social structure of Macanese society. It concludes that the survival of these customs attests to the continuity of an intangible heritage that defines the region's deep cultural identity.

This article analyses the exhibition Contemporary Painting of Macao, organized by the Macao Museum of Art and commented upon by the show's director-artist. Starting from the premise that contemporary Macao painting employs a qualitative language that dialogues with the city's collective memory, the text situates current production as a connecting thread between Macao's historical memories — from the city's entrepôt role in the encounter between the West and China in the seventeenth century, with missionaries such as Sambiasi and Castiglione — and today's artistic practices. The curatorial reading articulated in the essay emphasizes the idea of Macao as an archaeology of memories, a place of permanent communication between authors of different generations, beyond geographical borders. The analysis takes as reference works by artists present in the show, such as Konstantin Bessmertny, Exact time house; Mio Pang Fei, Palma; and the relationship between curatorial choices and the city's identity. The methodology combines critical-descriptive analysis of the works, historical contextualization of Macao, and reflection on the museological function of the exhibition, whose rotation of pieces reinforces the incomplete and evocative character of the Macanese collection. It concludes that the show is not merely a sample of the collection, but affirms Macao as a meeting point between West and East, memory and contemporaneity, opening perspectives for future readings of Macanese painting.

This article investigates the Parsee merchants who established themselves in Macao and Canton, situating their community within the broader mercantile networks of the Pearl River Delta. Carl T. Smith traces Parsee origins to Zoroastrian Persians who migrated first to India (notably Bombay) and then to China, where Parsis appeared in Canton before expanding into Macao's commercial sphere. A central focus is the Parsee minority's distinctive identity, including dress, customs, and a naming system that preserves the father's name as last name (patronymics) with occasional fixed surnames appearing in the nineteenth century; the study also notes the prevalence of patronymic endings such as *bhoy* and *jee*, which complicate kinship tracking. Methodologically, the article relies on archival, primary-source material: English East India Company records, Canton registers, the *Anglo-Chinese Calendar* (1832) listing Asiatic British subjects, and Canton General Chamber of Commerce membership lists. These sources enable a reconstruction of Parsee presence and movement: twenty-one merchants with clerks and servants in 1831; a substantial Parsee presence in five foreign-hong premises by 1832; a rising Parsee count through the 1830s (peaking in the mid-1830s, with continued representation into the 1840s). The piece also documents social incidents—such as a sunrise-prayer practice in Canton and a fatal quarrel at a Parsee-involved factory in 1829—illustrating religious identity and cross-cultural tensions. Conclusions emphasize the Parsee merchants as a significant yet understudied component of Macao's multicultural commercial landscape, whose diasporic networks linked Canton and Macao to wider Indian Ocean capitalism.