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This article investigates the dimension of alterity present in the Travels of Peter Mundy (1637) and its contribution to the study of Anglo-Portuguese relations in the Far East. Based on a critical reading of Mundy's diary, complemented by engravings included in the edition Seventeenth Century Macau in Contemporary Documents and Illustrations (Boxer), the work analyzes how Portuguese Macau – a fortified enclave, locus of exchanges among Lusophone speakers, Jesuits, and merchants – is represented by the English traveler under the sign of alterity. The text emphasizes the cordial reception, the military defenses, and the set of urban devices that transform Macau into a multicultural platform, decisive in the fostering of relations among English, Portuguese, Dutch, and Chinese actors. The analysis situates Mundy within the geopolitical context of 1635–1637 (the Portugal-England truce; Weddell's visits; Dutch resistance) and within his pragmatic reading of the city: he approaches the Jesuits, uses Portuguese as a lingua franca, receives supplies, and conducts exchanges with Portuguese merchants before departing for Canton. The article further highlights the symbolic role of the fortresses and the city as a stage for unofficial diplomacy, where the Anglo-foreign gaze codifies alterity, power, and commercial curiosity. In conclusion, the study proposes that Mundy's Travels offers a relevant empirical resource for understanding Anglo-Portuguese networks in the Far East and suggests methodological paths for the use of travel diaries as diplomatic sources in Lusophone historiography.

This paper investigates education in Macao and asks whether there was a single formal educational system for Macao’s Portuguese-speaking population, and how education reflected changing Western presence in China and Asia. It focuses on formal schooling for the Macanese or Macao-born Portuguese descent—educated in Portuguese, English, or, less often, Chinese—and traced from the sixteenth to the nineteenth century. The analysis considers education promoted by missionaries and clergy within the Padroado framework, by the Portuguese government, and by local communities, and situates it within Macao’s three geopolitical roles: a center of missionary activity for the diocese; a commercial settlement whose system of governance shifted after the treaty ports; and a small, precarious outpost where municipal authorities asserted their own educational priorities. Methodologically, the study relies on institutional histories, episcopal and municipal archives, and the curricular trajectories of early schools, notably the Escola de ler e escrever (1572) that became University College in 1594. The author argues that rather than a monolithic Macanese educational system, there existed multiple, overlapping trajectories shaped by mission-driven curricula, clerical and civil administration needs, and the demands of a cosmopolitan economy. Conclusions highlight education as a flexible instrument of Western presence, producing a locally informed elite capable of mediating cross-cultural interaction and shaping Macao’s evolving identity within China and the wider Asia-Pacific region.

This article offers a comprehensive bibliography on the foundation of Macau, organized to facilitate access to primary and secondary sources that structure the city’s history, culture, and urban configuration from the early stages of its founding to the intercultural developments among China, Portugal, and the West. The compilation brings together works in several languages—Chinese, Portuguese, English—including gazetteers, official chronicles, historical studies, dictionaries, geographic texts, maps, historical postcards, travel accounts, and thematic anthologies. The selection covers categories such as History of Macau, Studies of Communication between China and the West, Tax and Administration Records, Regional Chronicles, and Fictional/Memoir Literature, among others, reflecting the diversity of perspectives on the founding process, urbanism, circulation networks, and forms of representation of the city. Methodologically, the article describes the inclusion criteria, bibliographic cataloguing, and practical organization of items (by language, genre, and topic), with notes on title variants and translation. Among the results, the bibliography reveals the breadth of Macanese historiography, points out gaps, and suggests directions for future digitization and updates. In sum, it is an essential reference resource for researchers of Macao, historians of cultures, and transnational studies.

This comprehensive glossary provides equivalent pairs in Chinese (characters), pinyin, Portuguese, and English for the vast Chinese terminology recurring in articles on the Foundation of Macao in Chinese historiography, published in the first two editions of RC International. Its main argument is to present a tool for terminological standardization that facilitates reading and comparison across texts by different authors and translators. Methodologically, the glossary compiles entries organized according to a coded classification (T – Toponyms; D – Administrative departments in the imperial bureaucracy; C – Official positions; E/H – Historical periods; P – Personalities; I – Institutions; V – Miscellany). In addition to providing equivalents in traditional and simplified Chinese, pinyin, Portuguese, and English, it records usage notes and references to sources, acknowledging the collaborative and open-ended nature of the project. The collection covers toponyms, positions, institutions, periods, and historical figures frequent in Macao historiography, including entries such as Captain-General of Macao, military ministries, villages and mountains, among others. Its contribution lies in creating a shared terminological map for researchers in fields such as regional history, imperial bureaucracy, and Sino-Portuguese studies, fostering interdisciplinary dialogue. The glossary is presented as an initial work, subject to oversights and inaccuracies, and invites criticism and contributions for its continuous improvement.

This article analyzes the figure and legacy of Martino Martini S. J. (1614-1661), a Jesuit missionary and scientist whose role in the China mission of the seventeenth century was fundamental, although it remained forgotten by historiography for two centuries. The study focuses on Martini's decisive intervention in the Chinese Rites Controversy, exploring three main axes: his historical significance in the seventeenth century, the causes of his subsequent oblivion, and the process of his recent rediscovery. Contextualizing Martini's work within the framework of the method of cultural accommodation initiated by Matteo Ricci, the authors examine how his theological and scientific argumentation influenced the decree of Pope Alexander VII in 1656, which validated the practice of Chinese rites by recognizing their civil rather than religious nature. The article argues that Martini's actions represented a pioneering effort of cultural mediation and intellectual courage, foreshadowing contemporary challenges of the inculturation of universal values into diverse traditions. By situating Martini's mission within a European landscape marked by religious tensions, debates on probabilism, and scientific advances, the research underscores his essential contribution to the formation of a global civic culture and to the historical encounter between the civilizations of East and West.

This article examines the visual arts exhibition "Macao’s Cultural Heritage," a central component of the Thirteenth Macao Arts Festival (2002). Held at the Macao Tower, the exhibition featured 224 works by 166 local artists, spanning disciplines such as painting, calligraphy, photography, and graphic design. The text explores the symbolic dialogue established between the venue—a symbol of Macao’s modern aspirations—and the artistic subjects, which focused on the city’s 128 classified historical monuments and sites. The author highlights the exhibition’s significance within the contemporary socio-political context, noting that the event coincided with Macao’s bid for UNESCO World Heritage status. By analyzing the diverse creative approaches—ranging from introspective meditations to spontaneous captures of daily life—the article argues that these "visions" of heritage serve as vital expressions of local memory and cultural identity. Ultimately, the piece functions as a curated introduction to a selection of representative works, illustrating how local artists navigate the intersection of Macao’s architectural legacy and its evolving urban future. Through this synthesis of art and history, the exhibition reflects the festival’s broader mission to integrate cultural appreciation into the lived experience of the Macao community.

This article uses a cultural-anthropological lens to examine how teaching local history in Macao’s middle schools might foster a sense of belonging and a coherent collective identity amid rapid political, economic, and demographic change in the 1990s. Grounded in two years of ethnographic fieldwork (1997–1999) in Macao, it analyzes how curriculum practices, classroom interactions, and school discourses negotiate questions of what constitutes “Macao history,” who is included in the category of “Macao people,” and how the tension between “one country, two systems” and local autonomy is reflected in education. Drawing on Richard Handler’s conceptualization of identity as a relational, context-dependent phenomenon, the study treats school history as a site where individual and collective identities are imagined, contested, and reconstituted through everyday pedagogical decisions. The author also engages with insights from American and British cultural studies to frame debates about history as pedagogy and identity formation in transitional societies. Findings presented are tentative observations from two schools, illustrating how local-history curricula can either reinforce a distinctive Macao identity or reproduce competing narratives that reflect broader political negotiations. The paper concludes that anthropology offers productive ways to understand social and cultural change in Macao and to forge ongoing dialogue about how history, education, and identity intersect during periods of transition, while inviting further research and policy discussion.

This article presents a systematic compilation of historical data concerning Portugal and Macau extracted from the *Ming Shi Lu* (Records of the Ming Dynasty), one of the most fundamental official sources for the study of the Ming period. Despite its documentary richness, consultation of this work has been hindered by its vast extent, which motivated this effort to collect and organize more than fifty pertinent entries. The research focuses on three main axes: the smuggling activities and initial military conflicts between Portuguese navigators and the Chinese army in the coastal provinces; the process of settlement in Macau and the internal debate at the Imperial Court regarding the advisability of armed expulsion versus maintaining the *status quo* for economic reasons; and, finally, the transfer of military technology and Portuguese military assistance to the Ming against the Manchu invasion. Using a methodology based on the chronological analysis of specific terms and phonetic transliterations, the author demonstrates the crucial importance of these records for understanding Sino-Portuguese relations and the founding of Macau. The work constitutes an essential resource for deepening the historiography of the territory, offering a solid documentary basis for the study of political and commercial dynamics in the Far East during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

This study examines the intertwined trajectories of cooperation and contradiction between Portugal and the Holy See in the administration of Catholic ecclesiastical affairs in China during the 17th–18th centuries. It argues that the Padroado Real, while enabling Portugal to sponsor churches and appoint clergy across its Asian empire, repeatedly collided with Rome’s efforts to regulate mission governance from the center, prompting a structural shift toward centralized papal control via the Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith and the deployment of Vicars-Apostolic. Employing a documentary-historical method, the article analyzes papal bulls, royal privileges, apostolic acts, and mission correspondences, alongside local Chinese and Macanese records, to uncover how authorities negotiated jurisdiction, resource allocation, and doctrinal strategy. The findings show a persistent, pragmatic cooperation: Lisbon provided logistics, local knowledge, and patronage networks that sustained missions in a difficult field; Rome supplied doctrinal direction, mission standardization, and institutional oversight to ensure uniformity across diverse theatres. Yet contradictions were equally salient: conflicts over nomination rights, episcopal authority, and the reach of papal decrees, as well as tensions in adapting to Chinese religious, political, and cultural contexts. The analysis concludes that the 17th–18th-century Catholic presence in China emerged from a dynamic compromise between imperial patronage and papal centralization, a pattern that shaped the governance of ecclesiastical affairs in Macao and beyond.

This article analyzes Macau's exports to Japan of three commodities considered relatively insignificant — musk, calambac/aglewood, and mercury — and situates them within the maritime trade currents of East Asia between 1555 and 1640. Starting from the hypothesis that, although modest in volume, such items are part of the inter-Asian exchange networks that connected Macau, Japan, China, Southeast Asia, and the Ryukyus, the study argues that the importance of these commodities lies not in their isolated economic weight, but in their function of linking different trade networks, often negotiated by various agents beyond the Portuguese of Macau. The methodology combines a review of published primary and secondary sources (both European and Asian), with mapping of routes, partners, and flows, acknowledging the fragmentary nature of the available references. The article describes relevant routes and agents: Japanese ships licensed for Indochina, Siam, Philippines; trade with China (especially Fujian); Ryukyu networks; Wokou pirates and smugglers; interventions by Spaniards, Dutch, and English in the 17th century. Main conclusions: (i) the distribution of these goods shows that Japan received commodities from various origins, not only from Macau; (ii) musk, calambac, and mercury cross the boundaries between the animal, vegetable, and mineral worlds, articulating with the whole of Sino-Japanese and Southeast Asian trade; (iii) to assess Macau's role, comparative analysis of European and Asian sources is essential, recognizing the multifaceted and interconnected nature of these networks.

This article interrogates how the Portuguese, leveraging the Cape route and the Maritime Silk Road, linked Europe with China and, crucially, Macao’s connection to the Philippines during the late Ming dynasty. It argues that Portuguese expansion did not overturn pre‑existing Asian trade systems but rather integrated into regional networks, temporarily diverting a portion of commerce and introducing new financial technologies, notably bills of exchange, within an existing mercantile framework. By tracing the Lisbon–Macao–Manila circuit, the study situates Macao as a pivotal entrepôt and intercultural contact zone where European merchants operated under Chinese commercial norms and with local intermediaries. Methodologically, the work synthesizes maritime and diplomatic sources, port-by-port itineraries, and financial practices, drawing on both primary records and historiography (including assessments of the Cape route’s impact by contemporaries and later scholars such as Vitorino Magalhães Godinho). It also engages archaeological and textual evidence that attests to China’s longstanding nautical capabilities and the South China coast’s role in regional exchange. The analysis situates the exchange of goods—spices, silk, porcelain—and the mobility of people and ideas within a network that connected China with the Philippines, mediated by Macao’s Chinese, Portuguese, and local communities. The principal finding is that European participation, while innovative in instruments and strategic placement, reinforced rather than replaced Asian trading circuits; Macao emerges as a pragmatic conduit of cross‑cultural and commercial encounter in the Maritime Silk Road during the late Ming era.

This article analyzes the origins of European sinology in the late sixteenth century, focusing on the fundamental role played by the Macau-Manila axis as a center for the production and dissemination of knowledge about the Chinese empire. The author traces the evolution of Iberian perceptions, from near-total ignorance at the beginning of the Expansion to the systematization of a body of information that he defines as "proto-sinology." Through a documentary historical analysis, the study demonstrates how the initial contacts of the Portuguese, driven by pragmatic and commercial objectives, evolved from superficial observations to a significant deepening after the expedition of Fernão Peres de Andrade and the subsequent settlement in Macau. The narrative highlights the transition from a purely mercantile view to an intellectual and scientific curiosity that sought to decode the Chinese language, political organization, justice, and culture. The article argues that the interaction between the Portuguese networks in Macau and the Spanish ones in Manila was decisive in constructing an image of China as a sophisticated civilizational power, capable of rivaling Europe. Thus, the beginnings of sinology are presented not merely as a byproduct of trade, but as a complex process of cultural translation and mutual recognition within a context of global encounter.

This article presents and analyzes new historical documents about Macau found in the work *An Yue Shu Gao* (*Canton Reports*), authored by Tian Shengjin, an imperial inspector who served in Canton between 1615 and 1619. Despite the vast existing historiography on the Ming period, the author highlights the rarity of identifying unpublished primary sources that detail regional administration and Luso-Chinese relations in the early seventeenth century. Through rigorous documentary analysis, the study examines the reports sent to the Imperial Court, focusing on the organization of maritime defense (*aitão*), surveillance of the *fulangjis* (Portuguese), and security concerns regarding Japanese piracy and local banditry. The documents reveal crucial data on the governance of figures such as Yu Anxing and the implementation of restrictive regulations in the Leal Senado, in addition to exposing cases of administrative corruption linked to the collection of commercial taxes in Macau. This research contributes significantly to the field of Luso-Asian studies, offering a contemporary Chinese perspective on the European presence in the Pearl River Delta and the challenges of foreign and domestic policy during the reign of Emperor Wanli.

This article presents the transcription and compilation of notes from visits to Macau during the Ming and Qing dynasties, focusing on the chapter Xianbo — Notes on the journey to Lingnan, extracted from Ye Quan (Lingnan Ji, 1565) and who visited Macau in November of that year. The author, Tian Yingxia, selects and comments on excerpts that highlight Macau, in the era of the opening of the port, as a space for the circulation of knowledge, goods, and people, immersed in relations between China, the West, and regional port networks. The methodology involves critical editing of primary sources, exact transcription of excerpts, and historical contextualization, supported by notes and iconographic support, including drawings of Portuguese ships present in Records of Macau (Qing dynasty). The notes reveal Macau as a port enclave where maritime commerce flourishes, foreigners participate in urban dynamics, and local authorities exercise control, often through strategies of temporary complacency or coercion. The episode involving Tang Ke Kuan and the collection of taxes illustrates tensions between central administrative authority and mercantile interests, as well as the instability caused by political intrigues. Descriptions of foreigners on the island — ways of dressing, physical appearance, and status objects — reflect practices of intercultural perception and the role of travelers' accounts in the construction of images of Macau. It is concluded that these notes help to understand Macau as a space that anticipates dynamics of commerce, power, and culture, contributing to the understanding of the formation of Macao as a cosmopolitan hub.

This article proposes a detailed analysis of the administrative mechanisms established by the Ming dynasty in Macau during the initial period of the Portuguese settlement, between the mid-sixteenth century and the early seventeenth century. Departing from a critique of the predominance of macro-historical approaches, the author argues for the need for a micro-approach to clarify ambiguities and documentary gaps concerning the local officials responsible for the administration of the territory. The study focuses on the definition and functions of the *shou ao guan* — a generic term that encompassed lower-ranking posts such as the *ti diao* (subdirector), the *bei wo* (anti-piracy officer), and the *xun jian si* (security inspector) — and on their hierarchical relationship with higher-ranking figures, namely the *haidao fushi* (subintendant of Coastal Defense). Through a close examination of primary sources from the Ming dynasty, such as the memorials of Pang Shangpeng, and later monographs such as the *Ou Mun Kei Leok*, the author reconstructs the system of commercial inspection and population control exercised by the Chinese authorities. The conclusion is that the formalization of these posts reflects the institutional adaptation of the imperial government in response to the foreign presence and maritime trade, offering new perspectives on the complexity of Macau's governance and on the enigmas that still persist in the historiography of its foundation.

This article examines the exhibition "The Golden Exile: Pictorial Expressions of the School of Western Missionaries - Artworks of the Qing Dynasty Court," hosted by the Macao Museum of Art in collaboration with the Palace Museum, Beijing. It underscores Macao’s pivotal historical role as the primary gateway for the introduction of Western artistic techniques and Catholicism into Imperial China, tracing this influence from early Jesuits like Nicola Giovenni to the renowned Italian missionary painter Giuseppe Castiglione (Lang Shining). The author analyzes Castiglione’s unique synthesis of European perspective and traditional Chinese aesthetics, a "fusion style" that defined court portraiture and painting during the Kangxi and Qianlong reigns. Through an examination of specific masterpieces, such as the portrait of Emperor Qianlong and his concubine in Han costume, the study highlights the collaborative nature of Qing court painting, where multiple artists often contributed to a single work under imperial mandate. Furthermore, the article investigates the formal conventions of imperial art, specifically the "signed as subject" (*Chen*) protocols, while identifying rare and intriguing exceptions in Castiglione's oeuvre that lack traditional signatures or use alternative dedication formats. By documenting the biographies and stylistic evolutions of these artists, the article illustrates how the cultural exchange facilitated by Macao fostered an enduring artistic heritage that remains an integral part of China’s art history.

This editorial message by Heidi Ho introduces the inaugural issue of the international edition of the *Review of Culture* (*Revista de Cultura*), marking a significant evolutionary phase for the publication established in 1987. Adopting a bilingual format in Portuguese and English, the new series seeks to enhance the global visibility of Macao Studies and Sinology while fostering intercultural exchange between East and West. The author outlines the journal’s continued commitment to academic rigor and its focus on the "Cultural Encounter" as a central theme. This specific issue highlights Chinese research on the origins of Macao—a body of work largely unknown in Western scholarship—and contrasts it with established Portuguese and Iberian historiographical perspectives. By juxtaposing these diverse sources and interpretations, the publication aims to reconcile differing historical narratives and move toward a more integrated understanding of the 16th-century Sino-Portuguese encounter. Ho argues that this early interaction, occurring during the Ming dynasty, served as a fundamental precursor to the globalization of knowledge. Ultimately, the message frames the study of history as an ongoing, collaborative project, inviting international dialogue to overcome past misunderstandings and consolidate cultural entente.

The article analyzes the nature of Chinese imperial authority in Macao through the study of the normative repositories or "codes of conduct" imposed on the Portuguese settlement during the reigns of Wan Li (Ming dynasty) and Qianlong (Qing dynasty). It is argued that these legal instruments, dated 1614 and 1749, respectively, constituted not merely mechanisms of administrative control and border security, but rather the materialization of a continued political pact — a "stone treaty" — that legitimized the Portuguese presence through the strict acceptance of imperial sovereignty and jurisdiction. Through a legal-historical approach, the author explores the evolution of the "doctrine of respect and obedience," demonstrating how the Wan Li Code focused on the management of population and fiscal flows, while the Qianlong Code, emerging after serious judicial incidents, represented a tightening of control rules. The study identifies the symbolic dimension of imperial power in these statutes and discusses the process of Macao's autonomization vis-à-vis the Chinese legal order, concluding that the affirmation of the territory's political identity, culminating in the mid-nineteenth century, depended on the neutralization of this symbology and the systematic contradiction of the imperial authority previously established through these codes.

Drawing on Yue Shan Cong Tan, compiled by Li Wen Feng shortly after Portuguese contact with China, Fukuda reassesses the nature of Sino-Portuguese diplomacy in the early 16th century. The study foregrounds Yue Shan Cong Tan as a pivotal but scattered Chinese source whose quotations appear in Guangdong Tongzhi, Shu Yu Zhou Zi Lu and Tianxia Jun Guo Libing Shu, and which records episodes around cannon technology, initial voyages during the Jiajing era, and the haidao-led expulsion in 1518. The author lays out three focal issues: the timing and manner of cannon arrival; the onset of Portuguese activity at the start of the Jiajing reign; and Wang Xuan’s expulsion episode. Methodologically, Fukuda cross-checks the Yue Shan Cong Tan with Ming sources (Ming Shi Lu, Yang Ming Xiansheng Quanshu, Fujian Tongzhi, Xianyou Xianzhi) and other literary-historical compilations, identifying interpretive agents (Heru, Yang San, Dai Ming) and the role of interpreters in San Cai Tu Hui. The paper further argues that the Portuguese-Chinese exchanges in 1523–1557 increasingly depended on personnel from the Estado da Índia and on Chinese communities in Southeast Asia, explaining a continuity of contact despite shifting political obstacles, as reflected in Albuquerque’s letters. The conclusions underscore the value and limits of Yue Shan Cong Tan for reconstructing early Sino-Portuguese diplomacy, and suggest a nuanced chronology in which cannon knowledge and diplomatic contact intersect with broader dynastic and fiscal constraints.

This article analyzes the initial activities of the Portuguese in the seas of China during the first half of the 16th century, contextualizing their arrival within a period of transformation in the foreign policy of the Ming dynasty. Through a Chinese historiographical perspective, the author examines how the transition between maritime exploration and commercial establishment was facilitated by a specific political conjuncture: the decline of Chinese naval power following Zheng He's expeditions and the growing porosity of the maritime prohibition laws (*haijin*). The study highlights the fundamental role of the provincial authorities of Guangdong, particularly the civil governor Wu Tingju, who promoted the legalization of trade with non-tributary countries for fiscal and military reasons. This relaxation of the tributary trade system allowed pioneers such as Jorge Álvares and Rafael Perestrelo to establish exchange networks in Canton and Tun Men with relative success. The author argues that the success of the Portuguese incursion depended both on Lisbon's expansionist initiative and on the regional Chinese economic necessity to circumvent the restrictions of the imperial court. In sum, the article demonstrates that the founding of Macau and the consolidation of the Lusitanian presence in the region were processes shaped by a pragmatic openness in the Ming administration, at a time when the empire no longer exercised absolute control over its seas.