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This chronology details the key milestones of European expansion towards East Asia between 1474 and 1642, focusing on the diplomatic, maritime, and commercial competition between the crowns of Portugal and Castile. The text systematizes the historical trajectory from Toscanelli’s theoretical proposals and the early explorations of the African coast to the consolidation of the “Estado da Índia” and the subsequent penetration into the Far East. Through a sequential analysis, the author highlights crucial events such as the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the opening of the maritime route by Vasco da Gama (1498), and the strategic assertion of figures like Afonso de Albuquerque. The work explores the inherent tensions in this process of expansion, namely the conflict between the ideal of the Crusade and the dynamics of free trade, as well as the importance of key entrepôts such as Malacca, Hormuz, and Goa. By contextualizing the European "race," the chronology provides an essential documentary basis for understanding the process of early globalization and the complex encounters and misunderstandings in the South China Sea. This survey serves as a reference instrument for the study of logistics, foreign policy, and the network of intercultural contacts that enabled the establishment of the Portuguese presence in China and Japan.

The article presents a bilingual **Glossary** (Portuguese/English) integrated into the dossier "**European Encounters and Missed Encounters in the South China Sea** (II)", dedicated to the history of the Luso-Dutch system in the Asian context. Its central contribution lies in **compiling, standardizing, and clarifying** toponymic names, functional ethnonyms, offices, vessels, and recurring textual references found in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century sources (e.g., ports, dynasties, sultanates, and cartographic designations). Methodologically, the text operates as a mediating tool between the language of chronicles, cartographies, and historical documents, on the one hand, and contemporary academic usage, on the other: it identifies equivalences (e.g., alternative forms and transliterations), defines technical-institutional terms, and provides approximate locations, while also indicating semantic meanings where relevant (such as descriptive categories of people and types of weapons). As a result, the glossary facilitates the **cross-interpretation** of heterogeneous materials—particularly those pertaining to maritime expansion and political confrontations in southern China and Southeast Asia—thereby reducing terminological ambiguities. Thus, the article implicitly concludes that lexical densification and conceptual normalization are indispensable conditions for consistent historical analyses of European encounters in the Asian maritime space.

This article analyzes the relationship of Dutch power in the East in 1621, based on the detailed report prepared by André Coelho, a Portuguese captain active in the region. Employing a methodology of documentary analysis, the text retrieves and modernizes the unpublished manuscript, currently preserved at the National Library of Lisbon, to understand Portuguese strategies and perceptions in the face of Dutch expansion in the South China Sea and the Moluccas. Coelho's report reveals a thorough assessment of Dutch occupation across various islands and fortresses, as well as the growing threat to Portuguese interests in the region, highlighting the complexity of the maritime conflict between the two colonial powers. The military plans outlined, although unrealized, reflect an attempt at organized resistance through a powerful armada assembled in Manila with the objective of eliminating the Dutch presence and regaining control of trade routes and strategic islands. The analysis underscores the perception of the weakening of the Portuguese empire and the importance of a structured military response to the rise of the Dutch. It concludes by emphasizing the document's relevance for understanding the power struggles in Iberian and Dutch maritime expansion in Asia during the early seventeenth century.

This article presents an English translation of a historical account detailing the early maritime expeditions of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) to East Asia following its formation in 1602. Extracted from the 1725 French collection by René-Auguste Constantin de Reneville—which drew from the earlier works of the De Bry brothers and Isaac Commelin—the text chronicles the 1603 mission of Cornelis van Veen. Dispatched by Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck from Bantam to establish trade with China, Van Veen commanded the ships *Nassau* and *Erasmus* on a voyage that culminated in a significant confrontation with Portuguese interests in the Pearl River Delta. The narrative focuses on the Dutch flotilla’s arrival in Macao in July 1603, where they encountered the "Black Ship," a Portuguese carrack heavily laden with silk and gold destined for Nagasaki. The account details the strategic capture of this vessel, the subsequent transfer of its valuable cargo, and its destruction by fire. By documenting this early instance of Dutch-Portuguese conflict, the article highlights the VOC’s aggressive initial efforts to dismantle the Portuguese maritime monopoly and penetrate the lucrative Sino-Japanese trade routes. This primary source provides critical insights into the "encounters and clashes" that defined European expansion and competition in the South China Sea during the early seventeenth century.

This article presents an English translation of a seminal primary source documenting Olivier van Noort’s 1600 expedition to Manila and Brunei. Extracted from Isaac Commelin’s 1645 collection *Begin ende Voortgang*, the narrative details the Dutch perspective of the naval conflict between Van Noort’s fleet and the Spanish forces commanded by Antonio de Morga. This engagement marks the initiation of protracted Dutch-Spanish hostilities in the Philippines aimed at destabilizing the Manila-Acapulco galleon route—a conflict that persisted until the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Beyond the military confrontation, the account chronicles Van Noort’s subsequent arrival in Borneo. This landfall proved strategically significant, offering the Dutch critical insights into the commercial networks of Southeast Asia, particularly those involving Chinese and Japanese maritime circuits. A notable highlight of the narrative is the documentation of a Japanese "red seal" vessel captained by a Portuguese mariner, underscoring the cross-cultural and multi-ethnic nature of early seventeenth-century Asian maritime trade. By providing this translated excerpt, the text offers valuable primary-source evidence regarding early European competition in the South China Sea and the complex socio-economic landscape of the region during the transition to Dutch maritime expansion.

This article presents a translated excerpt from the 1645 "Relation d’un voyage aux Indes orientales par un gentilhomme français," a rare primary source document written by an anonymous French soldier serving the Dutch East India Company (VOC). As one of only two known 17th-century French accounts of travel through the South China Sea in the service of the VOC, the text provides a unique non-Dutch European perspective on the company’s maritime and colonial operations. The narrative focuses specifically on the rise of the Chinese corsair and admiral Iquan (Zheng Zhilong), tracing his trajectory from a humble merchant at the Dutch fort in Formosa (Taiwan) to the commander of a formidable pirate fleet of over eight hundred junks. The author details the complex geopolitical dynamics of the region, illustrating Iquan’s shifting alliances with Dutch authorities, his eventual appointment as a Ming imperial admiral, and the subsequent diplomatic and financial tensions with VOC officials like General Hendrik Brouwer. Ultimately, this account serves as a significant historical record of the socio-political volatility and cross-cultural "encounters and clashes" that defined the 17th-century maritime frontier in East Asia.

This article presents a primary source account, translated into English, detailing Admiral Wybrand van Warwijck’s 1604 expedition to China—a pivotal moment in the early history of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) in Asia. Following the establishment of the first VOC settlement in Bantam, Van Warwijck sought to initiate formal trade relations with the Ming Empire, leveraging the diplomatic influence of the Siamese Kingdom. The narrative, excerpted from seventeenth-century travelogues by Cornelis van Veen and Sebaldt de Weert, documents the strategic and military tensions between the nascent Dutch presence and the established Portuguese interests in Macao. Key findings highlight the multifaceted resistance the Dutch encountered: the Portuguese actively sabotaged Dutch diplomatic efforts in Canton through misinformation and political pressure, while the Chinese authorities ultimately rebuffed Van Warwijck’s overtures with a significant naval show of force in Fujian. Furthermore, the text provides historical context for the escalating hostilities in the South China Sea, including the capture of the Portuguese “Black Ship” in 1603 and the subsequent seizure of the *Santo António* in 1605. Ultimately, the account offers a critical perspective on the geopolitical complexities and the "clash of empires" that defined European maritime expansion and trade competition in East Asia during the early seventeenth century.

This article presents a translated excerpt from Antonio de Morga’s seminal work, *Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas* (1609), documenting the naval confrontation between Spanish colonial forces and a Dutch fleet led by Olivier van Noort in December 1600. Set against the backdrop of early seventeenth-century European maritime rivalries in the South China Sea, the text describes the arrival of Dutch privateers in Philippine waters and the subsequent engagement off the coast of Cavite. The battle resulted in the sinking of the Spanish merchant-turned-warship *San Diego* and heavy casualties, while Van Noort’s surviving crew eventually completed the first Dutch circumnavigation of the globe. As a primary historical document, this account provides critical insights into the strategic challenges of the Spanish administration in Manila and serves as Morga’s personal defense against subsequent charges of military incompetence and cowardice brought by the *Consejo de Indias*. By contrasting Morga’s perspective with contemporary Dutch narratives, the article highlights the intersection of colonial governance, maritime warfare, and the personal quest for honor in the early modern Pacific.

This article examines the Dutch attack on Macau in 1622, focusing on the narrative of the Dominican friar António do Rosário, who served as interim administrator of the local bishopric at the time. Drawing on primary sources, including António do Rosário’s account and contemporary documents, the study highlights previously unexamined aspects of the episode, such as the prediction of the arrival of the Anglo-Dutch squadron blockading Manila, and details the action of a flotilla of seven junks commanded by Francisco Tavares, which managed to break the port siege and ensure the arrival of Portuguese vessels from India and the south. The analysis also critically evaluates António do Rosário’s interpretation of the role of Macau’s captain-major, Lopo Sarmento de Carvalho, revealing discrepancies with other contemporary testimonies. It concludes that Macau’s resistance was marked by a combination of military strategies and heroic actions, which contributed to the effective defense of the city against Dutch threats, reinforcing the importance of local agency in preserving the territory during this period of European conflict in the South China Sea region.

This article analyzes the voyage of Cornelis Matelief de Jonge to the coasts of China in 1607, highlighting his navigation experiences, encounters, and the obstacles faced by the Portuguese and Dutch in attempting to establish commercial relations in the region. Using primary sources, such as the admiral's diary published in 1608, the research addresses the diplomatic, cultural, and logistical complexities, including difficulties in understanding Chinese protocols and the resistance of local authorities. The text reveals the limitations of European presence on the Chinese coast, exemplifying the tense encounter between Dutch forces and the mandarins of Canton, as well as the confrontation with the Portuguese who pursued the admiral. The main findings indicate that, despite attempts to establish contact, diplomatic relations remained fruitless at the time, reflecting the cultural and political barriers that marked early European efforts in the region. It is concluded that Matelief's voyage highlights the initial difficulties faced by the Dutch in expanding their commercial and diplomatic presence in China, contributing to an understanding of the early interactions between Europeans and the Ming dynasty on the East Asian coast.

This article presents an excerpt from the travel accounts of Élie Ripon, a Swiss mercenary in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) during the early 17th century. Ripon’s memoirs provide a rare first-hand perspective on the VOC’s military campaigns against Portuguese and Spanish interests in the South China Sea, most notably the failed Dutch assault on Macao in 1622. The narrative offers significant historiographical value by confirming known accounts while introducing previously undocumented details regarding the city's defense, specifically the active participation of Jesuit priests in combat and the mobilization of enslaved people by the Portuguese. Furthermore, the account documents Ripon’s experiences during Dutch efforts to establish strategic bases in the Pescadores archipelago and Formosa (referred to as Tauan). Beyond military history, Ripon provides ethnographic observations of the Kingdom of Champa and describes naval skirmishes and the destruction of Iberian shipbuilding efforts along the coast of modern-day Vietnam. This primary source material serves as a crucial document for understanding European colonial rivalries, the logistics of the VOC’s expansion in East Asia, and the diverse social actors involved in the defense of Macao during a pivotal era of maritime conflict.

This article presents a contemporary historical account by the Jesuit Fernão Guerreiro concerning the Dutch assault on Macao in 1601, led by Admiral Jacob van Neck. Originally published in Lisbon in 1605 as part of the *Relação Anual*, the text serves as a vital primary source for understanding the defensive strategies and socio-religious dynamics of Macao at the turn of the 17th century. Drawing upon privileged access to missionary correspondence, Guerreiro provides a detailed reconstruction of the city's response to the arrival of the Dutch fleet. The narrative highlights Macao's significant military vulnerability at the time, noting the absence of formal walls or a standing garrison. Consequently, the Jesuit College of Saint Paul emerged as the primary site of refuge and defense for the local population and their property. Beyond the logistical aspects of the conflict, the text illuminates the intense religious atmosphere of the Counter-Reformation, which framed the treatment and ultimate suffering of the Dutch captives. By situating the 1601 episode within the broader context of Luso-Dutch rivalry in the South China Sea, this anthology entry—modernized by Rui Manuel Loureiro—offers profound insights into the pivotal role played by the Society of Jesus in both the moral and physical preservation of Macao during the early stages of European imperial clashes in East Asia.

This article analyzes the evolution of European geographical and historical knowledge of the South China Sea during the transitional period between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries (c. 1580–1630). The study focuses on the critical moment when Iberian hegemony began to be challenged by the emergence of Northern European commercial powers, namely Holland and England. Taking as its starting point the iconography and texts of the *Collectiones Peregrinationum* (specifically the *Petits Voyages*) edited by the De Bry family, the author examines the first printed engraving of Macau (1606) and the context of Admiral Jacob van Neck's expedition in 1601. The research explores the tension between the Luso-Jesuit "experimental vanguard" and the systematization of geographical knowledge produced in the major European publishing centers. The article discusses how the circulation of travel accounts and contemporary cartography operated a synthesis between the classical tradition and the new realities of maritime expansion, resulting in narratives that, although fragmentary or "partial," were fundamental to the construction of a systematic image of the East. Through this analysis, the author highlights the uses, omissions, and adaptations of Portuguese empirical knowledge in European literature that accompanied the rise of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) and the reconfiguration of power in Southeast Asia.

This article examines the account of the affairs of the South, as described by Francisco Vieira de Figueiredo in 1664, offering an analysis of the political, economic, and maritime situation in the South China Sea region during the seventeenth century. Drawing on a biography of the Portuguese adventurer and merchant, the study highlights his diplomatic and commercial missions with Asian powers and the Dutch, as well as his observations on the conflicts and the decline of international trade in the region, including the impact of the cessation of trade with Japan and the strategies of resistance adopted by the Portuguese in the face of Dutch and Chinese advances. The narrative reveals the resilience of Portuguese activities in the area, even in the face of difficulties imposed by political conflicts and the presence of rival powers, such as the Dutch, who held strategic bases in the region. Using primary sources, above all Vieira de Figueiredo's account, and Boxer's biography, the article analyses the context of European encounters and missed connections in the South China Sea, highlighting the survival strategies of the Portuguese elites and the complexity of international relations in that period. It concludes by emphasising the importance of these accounts for understanding the Portuguese persistence in the region and the power dynamics among European and Asian nations in the seventeenth century.

This article presents an excerpt from the autobiographical narrative of Jacques de Coutre, a Flemish merchant and soldier who lived approximately thirty years in the East in the service of the Portuguese empire. The text focuses specifically on the period between 1597 and 1602, detailing his voyage from Malacca to the Philippines, his stay in Manila, and his subsequent return to Southeast Asia. Based on the manuscript *Vida de Iaques de Coutre*, held at the Biblioteca Nacional de Madrid, the chronicle offers a privileged glimpse into European "encounters and disencounters" in the South China Sea at a moment of transition and conflict. De Coutre describes in detail his interactions with the Dutch fleets of Jacob van Neck and Jacob van Heemskerck in Patane, following their clashes with Portuguese forces in Macau and Java. The narrative reveals the complex network of espionage, trade, and diplomacy that defined the era. The account highlights the author's extraordinary social and political mobility, whose ease in moving between Portuguese, Dutch, and Malay milieus raises questions about the ambiguity of his loyalties. Ultimately, the text illustrates the vulnerability of Portuguese strongholds in the face of the rising Dutch presence and the fundamental role of cosmopolitan intermediaries in maintaining strategic intelligence in the region.

This article analyzes the voyage of Joris van Spilbergen to the Philippines and the Moluccas in 1615, contextualizing his expedition within the dynamics of colonial conflict between Holland, Spain, and Portugal in the early seventeenth century. Through a documentary analysis of Spilbergen's narrative, attributed to Jan Corneloszoon May and published in 1619, the study investigates the strategies of piracy, diplomacy, and militarism employed by the Dutch in their quest to establish a colonial presence and trade routes in Southeast Asia. The article highlights that, although the armistice of 1609 officially ceased hostilities between Spain and Holland in Europe, conflicts persisted at the colonial level, evidencing a continuity of war in overseas territories. The accounts emphasize naval actions against the coasts of the Viceroyalty of Peru, New Spain, and Manila, as well as attempts at reconnaissance and threats to Spanish and Chinese interests in the region. The narrative also reveals the complexities of indigenous and colonial relations, a central theme in understanding Dutch expansion strategies. The conclusions underscore the importance of Spilbergen's narrative as a historical source, while also evidencing the degree of clandestinity and controversy involved in the circulation of such information at the time.

This article analyzes Macau's victory against the Dutch attack in 1622, emphasizing the resistance of the Macaenses in the face of the maritime offensive led by the Dutch East India Company. Drawing on contemporary sources, including the account of the Jesuit priest Jerónimo Rodrigues, the study contextualizes the episode within the broader tensions between Europeans and the Chinese Empire, highlighting military strategies and the political impact of the resistance. The research addresses the detailed description of the attack, evidencing the determination of Macau's defenders and the superiority of the local response against Dutch expectations of rapid submission. Furthermore, the article assesses the importance of the episode in Macau's history, illustrating its role as an obstacle to Dutch expansion in the region and reinforcing its relevance as a symbol of colonial resistance. It concludes that the event not only consolidated Macau's defense but also influenced subsequent Portuguese and Dutch commercial and military strategies in East Asia, contributing to the understanding of colonial dynamics and the formation of the city's cultural and political space.

This article examines the 1601 incident in Macao, a pivotal confrontation marking the first Dutch maritime expedition to China. Led by Admiral Jacob van Neck under the auspices of the *Oude Compagnie*, the mission resulted in a diplomatic and military failure following the capture of Dutch sailors by Portuguese authorities at the mouth of the Pearl River. Central to this account is the testimony of Martinus Apius (Maarten Aap), one of the few survivors who returned to the Netherlands to provide a formal deposition to the newly formed Dutch East India Company (VOC). The narrative highlights the stark contrast between initial Dutch perceptions of the event and the reality of the Portuguese response, which included the clandestine execution of seventeen Dutch prisoners to prevent Chinese interference. The article contextualizes Apius’s account through contemporary Chinese sources, such as Wang Lingheng’s *Yuejianpian*, which corroborate the presence and expulsion of the "red-haired barbarians." The author argues that this incident served as a catalyst for a fundamental shift in Dutch colonial policy, transforming their presence in Asia from purely mercantile ventures into a militarily enforced, anti-Portuguese expansion. Furthermore, it notes the legal and intellectual impact of the event, as Apius’s deposition provided critical inspiration for Hugo Grotius’s foundational treatise on international law, *De iure praedae*.

本文呈现了彼得·芒迪于1637年随威廉·库廷爵士商船队、在约翰·威德尔船长指挥下造访澳门的第一手记述。芒迪作为船队的商务代理，以目击者的视角对该葡中港口在地缘政治与商业冲突显著加剧时期的状况作出了细致描绘。该文本由鲁伊·曼努埃尔·洛雷罗根据十七世纪原始手稿进行现代化整理，记载了英国船只为期六个月的驻留，并凸显了早期英葡在南中国海遭遇的诸多复杂面向。芒迪的叙述聚焦于葡萄牙人为维护其岌岌可危的商业垄断——尤其是通往日本的命脉贸易航线——所作的努力，及其随后对英国商人渗透的抵制。此外，该记述还为葡裔居民与中国当局之间的行政关系提供了罕见的洞见，详细展现了朝廷命官的监督以及明政府对这一居留地施加的各种经济压力。芒迪凭借其精通葡萄牙语和西班牙语的优势，捕捉到了日常生活的诸多细节、海事后勤运作及跨文化外交的微妙之处，而这些内容在同时代的官方档案中往往付诸阙如。该文集作为理解十七世纪中叶澳门海上贸易动态、外交摩擦及社会结构的重要历史文献，具有不可替代的学术价值。

This article presents a primary historical account of the 1601 voyage of Dutch Admiral Jacob van Neck to the China coast, as recorded by eyewitness Roelof Roeloffsz. Commissioned by the Old Amsterdam Company (*Oude Compagnie*), Van Neck’s fleet was driven toward Macao by a sudden storm following a failed military engagement against the Portuguese fortress at Tidore in the Moluccas. The narrative details the Dutch fleet's arrival at the Chinese coast in September 1601, their initial interactions with local Chinese fishermen, and their surprise upon discovering the Spanish-style architecture of Macao. The text chronicles the subsequent hostile reception by Portuguese forces under the command of Dom Paulo de Portugal, which resulted in unsuccessful landing attempts and the eventual execution of seventeen Dutch prisoners in Macao. Originally published in 1606 and later compiled in major collections such as Isaac Commelin’s *Begin ende Voortgang*, this account serves as a critical primary source for understanding early Dutch-Portuguese maritime conflict and the geopolitical tensions characterizing the South China Sea at the turn of the 17th century. It offers significant insights into the logistical challenges of early Dutch exploration and the volatile nature of European colonial encounters in the Far East.